Merge remote-tracking branch 'origin/main' into benvin/nft-decodable

# Conflicts:
#	internal/nftables/compiler_test.go

.woodpecker/release.yaml

@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ steps:
             cpu: 2
 
   - name: package
-    image: git.unkin.net/unkin/almalinux9-rpmbuilder:latest
+    image: artifactapi.k8s.syd1.au.unkin.net/docker-internal/rpmbuilder:0.1.0-alma9
     commands:
       - ./scripts/build-rpm.sh ${CI_COMMIT_TAG}
     depends_on: [build]

DESIGN.md

@@ -430,6 +430,13 @@ report the generation applied, giving a fleet-wide "converged / N behind" view.
   source/dest disables its rule loudly, never opens it.
 - **Adds fail closed, the control plane fails open.** Partial rollout blocks new
   flows until every hop converges; a dead API leaves the last-good posture running.
+- **A generation that severs the API is reverted.** The agent applies as a
+  `tomswall try` does (on-disk snapshot, systemd revert timer, shared lock), then
+  reports `applied` over a fresh connection. If that fails at the transport level,
+  or the apply errors, it records the generation in
+  `/var/lib/tomswall/reverted.json` (skipped until a newer one arrives), restores
+  the snapshot and reports `reverted`/`failed`. A failed restore leaves the timer
+  to retry it and is reported `failed`.
 
 ---
 

cmd/tomswall/agent.go

@@ -29,7 +29,8 @@ func agentCmd() *cobra.Command {
 		Long: `Agent runs the control-plane pull loop: it fetches this device's compiled
 config from tomswallapi, differentially applies it, and reports the applied
 generation back. It caches the last known-good config and, if the control plane
-is unreachable, keeps applying that cache — it never fails closed.
+is unreachable, keeps applying that cache — it never fails closed. A new
+generation that cuts the agent off from the API is reverted and reported as such.
 
 The agent token defaults to the TOMSWALL_AGENT_TOKEN environment variable, and
 the device name defaults to the system hostname.`,

internal/agent/agent.go

@@ -2,8 +2,13 @@ package agent
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"log/slog"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
 	"time"
 
 	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/config"
@@ -12,11 +17,17 @@ import (
 )
 
 // Applier applies a translated config to the firewall. Abstracted so the run
-// loop is testable without touching the kernel.
+// loop is testable without touching the kernel. With safe, a change is applied
+// as a pending try: revert restores the previous ruleset (a failed revert leaves
+// the revert timer armed) and keep drops the snapshot. Both are nil when nothing
+// changed or safe is false.
 type Applier interface {
-	Apply(ctx context.Context, cfg *config.Config) error
+	Apply(ctx context.Context, cfg *config.Config, safe bool) (revert, keep func() error, err error)
 }
 
+// revertDelay is when the revert timer fires if the agent dies mid-apply.
+const revertDelay = time.Minute
+
 // Agent runs the pull-apply-report loop for one device.
 type Agent struct {
 	Client   *Client
@@ -25,6 +36,9 @@ type Agent struct {
 	Applier  Applier
 	// Resolver overrides the DNS resolver (tests); nil derives it per-config.
 	Resolver *Resolver
+
+	// lastReverted covers a reverted generation whose persistence failed.
+	lastReverted *reverted
 }
 
 // Run loops until ctx is cancelled, applying one cycle per Interval (and once
@@ -62,16 +76,31 @@ func (a *Agent) RunOnce(ctx context.Context) error {
 			return fmt.Errorf("control plane unreachable and no cached config: %w", err)
 		}
 		// Re-apply last known-good; do not report a generation we didn't fetch.
-		return a.applyConfig(ctx, cached, false)
+		return a.applyConfig(ctx, cached, nil)
 	}
 
-	if err := a.Cache.Write(raw); err != nil {
-		slog.Warn("agent: caching config failed", "err", err)
+	rv, err := a.readReverted()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
-	return a.applyConfig(ctx, rc, true)
+	if a.lastReverted != nil && (rv == nil || a.lastReverted.Generation > rv.Generation) {
+		rv = a.lastReverted
+	}
+	if rv != nil {
+		a.reportReverted(ctx, rv)
+		if rc.Generation <= rv.Generation {
+			slog.Info("agent: generation was reverted, waiting for a newer one", "generation", rc.Generation)
+			return nil
+		}
+	}
+	return a.applyConfig(ctx, rc, raw)
 }
 
-func (a *Agent) applyConfig(ctx context.Context, rc *RenderedConfig, report bool) error {
+// applyConfig applies rc. A fetched config (raw != nil) is applied as a pending
+// try, verified by reaching the API through the new ruleset and reverted if that
+// fails; only then is it cached. The cached config is the last verified-good one,
+// so it is applied plainly: there is nothing to verify it against.
+func (a *Agent) applyConfig(ctx context.Context, rc *RenderedConfig, raw []byte) error {
 	resolver := a.Resolver
 	if resolver == nil {
 		resolver = NewResolver(rc.Resolver)
@@ -82,46 +111,219 @@ func (a *Agent) applyConfig(ctx context.Context, rc *RenderedConfig, report bool
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("translate: %w", err)
 	}
-	if err := a.Applier.Apply(ctx, cfg); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("apply: %w", err)
+
+	unlock, err := tryapply.Acquire()
+	if errors.Is(err, tryapply.ErrPending) {
+		slog.Warn("agent: a 'tomswall try' is pending, skipping cycle")
+		return nil
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer unlock()
+
+	revert, keep, err := a.Applier.Apply(ctx, cfg, raw != nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		err = fmt.Errorf("apply: %w", err)
+		if raw != nil && revert != nil {
+			return a.revertGeneration(ctx, rc.Generation, StatusFailed, err, revert)
+		}
+		if revert != nil {
+			if rerr := revert(); rerr != nil {
+				err = fmt.Errorf("%w; restore: %v; revert timer pending", err, rerr)
+			}
+		}
+		if raw != nil {
+			if rerr := a.Client.ReportStatus(ctx, Status{Status: StatusFailed, Generation: rc.Generation, Error: err.Error()}); rerr != nil {
+				slog.Warn("agent: reporting status failed", "err", rerr)
+			}
+		}
+		return err
+	}
+	if raw == nil {
+		slog.Info("agent: applied cached config", "generation", rc.Generation, "rules", len(cfg.Rules))
+		return nil
+	}
+
+	if err := a.confirm(ctx, rc.Generation); err != nil {
+		if keep != nil && ctx.Err() == nil {
+			return a.revertGeneration(ctx, rc.Generation, StatusReverted, err, revert)
+		}
+		// Shutdown is not a verdict on the generation: keep it.
+		if keep != nil {
+			if kerr := keep(); kerr != nil {
+				slog.Warn("agent: dropping snapshot failed", "err", kerr)
+			}
+		}
+		return err
+	}
+	if keep != nil {
+		if err := keep(); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("dropping snapshot: %w", err)
+		}
 	}
 	slog.Info("agent: applied config", "generation", rc.Generation, "rules", len(cfg.Rules))
 
-	if report {
-		if err := a.Client.ReportStatus(ctx, rc.Generation); err != nil {
-			slog.Warn("agent: reporting status failed", "err", err)
-		}
-		// Report the FIB so the control plane can scope router enforcement.
-		if fib := CollectFIB(ctx); len(fib) > 0 {
-			if err := a.Client.ReportRoutes(ctx, fib); err != nil {
-				slog.Warn("agent: reporting routes failed", "err", err)
-			}
+	if err := a.Cache.Write(raw); err != nil {
+		slog.Warn("agent: caching config failed", "err", err)
+	}
+	a.lastReverted = nil
+	if err := os.Remove(a.revertedPath()); err != nil && !os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		slog.Warn("agent: clearing reverted generation failed", "err", err)
+	}
+	// Report the FIB so the control plane can scope router enforcement.
+	if fib := CollectFIB(ctx); len(fib) > 0 {
+		if err := a.Client.ReportRoutes(ctx, fib); err != nil {
+			slog.Warn("agent: reporting routes failed", "err", err)
 		}
 	}
 	return nil
 }
 
-// EngineApplier applies via the real nftables differential engine.
-type EngineApplier struct{}
+// revertGeneration marks generation as reverted before restoring, so a failed
+// restore can never lead to re-applying it, then reports status. It is also kept
+// in memory in case persisting fails. A failed
+// restore leaves the snapshot and timer armed and is reported as failed.
+func (a *Agent) revertGeneration(ctx context.Context, generation int64, status string, cause error, revert func() error) error {
+	rv := &reverted{Generation: generation, Status: status, Error: cause.Error()}
+	a.lastReverted = rv
+	if err := a.writeReverted(rv); err != nil {
+		slog.Error("agent: persisting reverted generation failed", "err", err)
+	}
+	suffix := ""
+	if rerr := revert(); rerr != nil {
+		suffix = fmt.Sprintf("; restore: %v; revert timer pending", rerr)
+		rv.Status = StatusFailed
+		rv.Error += suffix
+		if werr := a.writeReverted(rv); werr != nil {
+			slog.Error("agent: persisting reverted generation failed", "err", werr)
+		}
+	}
+	a.reportReverted(ctx, rv)
+	return fmt.Errorf("generation %d %s: %w%s", generation, rv.Status, cause, suffix)
+}
 
-// Apply computes and applies the differential change set for cfg. It refuses
-// while a 'tomswall try' awaits confirmation.
-func (EngineApplier) Apply(_ context.Context, cfg *config.Config) error {
-	unlock, err := tryapply.Acquire()
+var (
+	verifyAttempts = 3
+	verifyDelay    = 2 * time.Second
+	verifyTimeout  = 5 * time.Second
+)
+
+// errUnreachable means the API could not be reached through the new ruleset.
+var errUnreachable = errors.New("control plane unreachable after apply")
+
+// confirm reports generation as applied over a fresh connection, which proves
+// the API is reachable through the new ruleset. Any HTTP response counts as
+// reachable; only repeated transport failures return errUnreachable.
+func (a *Agent) confirm(ctx context.Context, generation int64) error {
+	var err error
+	for i := 0; i < verifyAttempts; i++ {
+		if i > 0 {
+			select {
+			case <-ctx.Done():
+				return ctx.Err()
+			case <-time.After(verifyDelay):
+			}
+		}
+		actx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, verifyTimeout)
+		err = a.Client.ReportStatus(actx, Status{Status: StatusApplied, Generation: generation})
+		cancel()
+		if ctx.Err() != nil {
+			return ctx.Err()
+		}
+		var uerr *url.Error
+		if !errors.As(err, &uerr) {
+			if err != nil {
+				slog.Warn("agent: reporting status failed", "err", err)
+			}
+			return nil
+		}
+	}
+	return fmt.Errorf("%w: %v", errUnreachable, err)
+}
+
+// reverted is a generation rolled back after a failed apply or for severing the
+// API; persisted so it is not re-applied until a newer generation arrives.
+type reverted struct {
+	Generation int64  `json:"generation"`
+	Status     string `json:"status,omitempty"`
+	Error      string `json:"error,omitempty"`
+	Reported   bool   `json:"reported"`
+}
+
+func (a *Agent) revertedPath() string {
+	return filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(a.Cache.Path), "reverted.json")
+}
+
+func (a *Agent) readReverted() (*reverted, error) {
+	b, err := os.ReadFile(a.revertedPath())
+	if os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	var rv reverted
+	if err := json.Unmarshal(b, &rv); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("parsing %s: %w", a.revertedPath(), err)
+	}
+	return &rv, nil
+}
+
+func (a *Agent) writeReverted(rv *reverted) error {
+	b, err := json.Marshal(rv)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	defer unlock()
+	return tryapply.WriteFile(a.revertedPath(), b)
+}
+
+// reportReverted reports rv until the control plane accepts it.
+func (a *Agent) reportReverted(ctx context.Context, rv *reverted) {
+	if rv.Reported {
+		return
+	}
+	status := rv.Status
+	if status == "" {
+		status = StatusReverted
+	}
+	if err := a.Client.ReportStatus(ctx, Status{Status: status, Generation: rv.Generation, Error: rv.Error}); err != nil {
+		slog.Warn("agent: reporting reverted generation failed, retrying next cycle", "generation", rv.Generation, "err", err)
+		return
+	}
+	rv.Reported = true
+	if err := a.writeReverted(rv); err != nil {
+		slog.Warn("agent: persisting reverted generation failed", "err", err)
+	}
+}
+
+// EngineApplier applies via the real nftables differential engine.
+type EngineApplier struct{}
+
+// Apply computes and applies the differential change set for cfg, with safe
+// under a pending try as 'tomswall try' does. The caller holds the try lock.
+func (EngineApplier) Apply(_ context.Context, cfg *config.Config, safe bool) (revert, keep func() error, err error) {
 	engine, err := nftables.NewEngine(cfg)
 	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("initializing nftables: %w", err)
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("initializing nftables: %w", err)
 	}
 	changes, err := engine.Plan()
 	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("computing changes: %w", err)
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("computing changes: %w", err)
 	}
 	if changes.Empty() {
-		return nil
+		return nil, nil, nil
 	}
-	return engine.Apply(changes)
+	if !safe {
+		return nil, nil, engine.Apply(changes)
+	}
+	snap, err := engine.Snapshot()
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("snapshotting ruleset: %w", err)
+	}
+	// PID 0: 'tomswall confirm' must not signal the agent.
+	if _, err := tryapply.Arm(snap, 0, revertDelay); err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+	return tryapply.Abort, tryapply.Discard, engine.Apply(changes)
 }

internal/agent/agent_test.go

@@ -132,10 +132,10 @@ type fakeApplier struct {
 	lastGen int
 }
 
-func (f *fakeApplier) Apply(_ context.Context, cfg *config.Config) error {
+func (f *fakeApplier) Apply(_ context.Context, cfg *config.Config, _ bool) (func() error, func() error, error) {
 	atomic.AddInt32(&f.count, 1)
 	f.lastGen = len(cfg.Rules)
-	return nil
+	return nil, nil, nil
 }
 
 const renderedYAML = `generation: 7

internal/agent/cache.go

@@ -2,7 +2,8 @@ package agent
 
 import (
 	"os"
-	"path/filepath"
+
+	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/tryapply"
 )
 
 // Cache persists the last known-good rendered config to disk so the agent can
@@ -11,16 +12,9 @@ type Cache struct {
 	Path string
 }
 
-// Write atomically stores the raw config bytes.
+// Write durably stores the raw config bytes.
 func (c Cache) Write(raw []byte) error {
-	if err := os.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(c.Path), 0o755); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	tmp := c.Path + ".tmp"
-	if err := os.WriteFile(tmp, raw, 0o600); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	return os.Rename(tmp, c.Path)
+	return tryapply.WriteFile(c.Path, raw)
 }
 
 // Read returns the cached config, or (nil, nil) when no cache exists yet.

internal/agent/client.go

@@ -26,7 +26,9 @@ func NewClient(baseURL, device, token string) *Client {
 		BaseURL: baseURL,
 		Device:  device,
 		Token:   token,
-		HTTP:    &http.Client{Timeout: 30 * time.Second},
+		// No keep-alives: every request, the post-apply check included, opens a
+		// fresh connection that must pass the current ruleset.
+		HTTP: &http.Client{Timeout: 30 * time.Second, Transport: noKeepAlive()},
 	}
 }
 
@@ -94,10 +96,24 @@ func (c *Client) ReportRoutes(ctx context.Context, prefixes []string) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-// ReportStatus tells the control plane which generation this device has applied.
-func (c *Client) ReportStatus(ctx context.Context, generation int64) error {
+// Status values reported to POST /api/v1/devices/{name}/status.
+const (
+	StatusApplied  = "applied"
+	StatusReverted = "reverted"
+	StatusFailed   = "failed"
+)
+
+// Status is the outcome of applying one generation.
+type Status struct {
+	Status     string `json:"status"`
+	Generation int64  `json:"generation"`
+	Error      string `json:"error,omitempty"`
+}
+
+// ReportStatus tells the control plane the outcome of applying a generation.
+func (c *Client) ReportStatus(ctx context.Context, st Status) error {
 	url := fmt.Sprintf("%s/api/v1/devices/%s/status", c.BaseURL, c.Device)
-	payload, _ := json.Marshal(map[string]int64{"generation": generation})
+	payload, _ := json.Marshal(st)
 	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, http.MethodPost, url, bytes.NewReader(payload))
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -116,3 +132,9 @@ func (c *Client) ReportStatus(ctx context.Context, generation int64) error {
 	}
 	return nil
 }
+
+func noKeepAlive() http.RoundTripper {
+	t := http.DefaultTransport.(*http.Transport).Clone()
+	t.DisableKeepAlives = true
+	return t
+}

internal/agent/safeapply_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,396 @@
+package agent
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+	"sync"
+	"sync/atomic"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/config"
+	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/nftables"
+	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/tryapply"
+)
+
+func TestMain(m *testing.M) {
+	dir, err := os.MkdirTemp("", "tomswall-agent-test")
+	if err != nil {
+		panic(err)
+	}
+	tryapply.Dir = dir
+	tryapply.Run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
+		timerCmds = append(timerCmds, name)
+		return nil
+	}
+	verifyDelay = time.Millisecond
+	verifyTimeout = time.Second
+	code := m.Run()
+	os.RemoveAll(dir)
+	os.Exit(code)
+}
+
+// fakeAPI serves a config generation and records status reports; while cut it
+// drops connections to the status endpoint, as a severing ruleset would.
+type fakeAPI struct {
+	*httptest.Server
+	gen     atomic.Int64
+	cut     atomic.Bool
+	code    atomic.Int32
+	mu      sync.Mutex
+	reports []Status
+}
+
+func newFakeAPI(t *testing.T, gen int64) *fakeAPI {
+	f := &fakeAPI{}
+	f.gen.Store(gen)
+	f.code.Store(http.StatusNoContent)
+	f.Server = httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		switch r.URL.Path {
+		case "/api/v1/devices/fw-a/config":
+			_, _ = w.Write([]byte(strings.Replace(renderedYAML, "generation: 7", "generation: "+itoa(f.gen.Load()), 1)))
+		case "/api/v1/devices/fw-a/status":
+			if f.cut.Load() {
+				conn, _, _ := w.(http.Hijacker).Hijack()
+				conn.Close()
+				return
+			}
+			var st Status
+			_ = json.NewDecoder(r.Body).Decode(&st)
+			f.mu.Lock()
+			f.reports = append(f.reports, st)
+			f.mu.Unlock()
+			w.WriteHeader(int(f.code.Load()))
+		default:
+			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusNotFound)
+		}
+	}))
+	t.Cleanup(f.Close)
+	return f
+}
+
+// timerCmds records the systemd commands tryapply runs.
+var timerCmds []string
+
+func itoa(n int64) string { b, _ := json.Marshal(n); return string(b) }
+
+func (f *fakeAPI) last() Status {
+	f.mu.Lock()
+	defer f.mu.Unlock()
+	if len(f.reports) == 0 {
+		return Status{}
+	}
+	return f.reports[len(f.reports)-1]
+}
+
+// fakeEngine always changes the ruleset, when safe under a real tryapply pending
+// try; onApply simulates its effect and restoreErr fails the restore.
+type fakeEngine struct {
+	applies, plain, restores int
+	err, restoreErr          error
+	onApply                  func()
+	onRestore                func()
+}
+
+func (f *fakeEngine) Apply(_ context.Context, _ *config.Config, safe bool) (func() error, func() error, error) {
+	if !safe {
+		f.plain++
+		return nil, nil, f.err
+	}
+	if _, err := tryapply.Arm(&nftables.Snapshot{Table: "tomswall"}, 0, time.Minute); err != nil {
+		return nil, nil, err
+	}
+	tryapply.Restore = func(*nftables.Snapshot) error {
+		f.restores++
+		if f.onRestore != nil {
+			f.onRestore()
+		}
+		return f.restoreErr
+	}
+	f.applies++
+	if f.onApply != nil {
+		f.onApply()
+	}
+	return tryapply.Abort, tryapply.Discard, f.err
+}
+
+// pending reports whether a snapshot is still armed and its timer not stopped since.
+func pending(t *testing.T) bool {
+	t.Helper()
+	_, err := os.Stat(filepath.Join(tryapply.Dir, "try-snapshot.json"))
+	armed := len(timerCmds) > 0 && timerCmds[len(timerCmds)-1] == "systemd-run"
+	if (err == nil) != armed {
+		t.Fatalf("snapshot present=%v but timer armed=%v", err == nil, armed)
+	}
+	return armed
+}
+
+func newAgent(t *testing.T, api *fakeAPI, eng *fakeEngine) *Agent {
+	return &Agent{
+		Client:  NewClient(api.URL, "fw-a", "tok"),
+		Cache:   Cache{Path: filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "rendered.yaml")},
+		Applier: eng,
+	}
+}
+
+func cachedGen(t *testing.T, a *Agent) int64 {
+	rc, err := a.Cache.Read()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if rc == nil {
+		return 0
+	}
+	return rc.Generation
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyReachableApplies(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.restores != 0 || api.last() != (Status{Status: StatusApplied, Generation: 7}) || cachedGen(t, a) != 7 || pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d last=%+v cache=%d", eng.restores, api.last(), cachedGen(t, a))
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyUnreachableRevertsAndReports(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{onApply: func() { api.cut.Store(true) }, onRestore: func() { api.cut.Store(false) }}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); !errors.Is(err, errUnreachable) {
+		t.Fatalf("want errUnreachable, got %v", err)
+	}
+	if eng.restores != 1 || cachedGen(t, a) != 0 || pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d cache=%d", eng.restores, cachedGen(t, a))
+	}
+	if st := api.last(); st.Status != StatusReverted || st.Generation != 7 || st.Error == "" {
+		t.Fatalf("last report %+v", st)
+	}
+	rv, _ := a.readReverted()
+	if rv == nil || rv.Generation != 7 || !rv.Reported {
+		t.Fatalf("persisted %+v", rv)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyRevertReportedOnceReachable(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{onApply: func() { api.cut.Store(true) }}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	_ = a.RunOnce(context.Background())
+	if eng.restores != 1 || api.last().Status != "" {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d last=%+v", eng.restores, api.last())
+	}
+	api.cut.Store(false)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.applies != 1 || api.last() != (Status{Status: StatusReverted, Generation: 7, Error: api.last().Error}) {
+		t.Fatalf("applies=%d last=%+v", eng.applies, api.last())
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyShutdownDoesNotRevert(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
+	eng := &fakeEngine{onApply: func() { api.cut.Store(true); cancel() }}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(ctx); !errors.Is(err, context.Canceled) {
+		t.Fatalf("want context.Canceled, got %v", err)
+	}
+	if rv, _ := a.readReverted(); eng.restores != 0 || rv != nil || cachedGen(t, a) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d reverted=%+v cache=%d", eng.restores, rv, cachedGen(t, a))
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyHTTPErrorDoesNotRevert(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	api.code.Store(http.StatusInternalServerError)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.restores != 0 || cachedGen(t, a) != 7 {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d cache=%d", eng.restores, cachedGen(t, a))
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyApplyErrorRestoresAndReportsFailed(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{err: errors.New("netlink: boom")}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err == nil {
+		t.Fatal("want error")
+	}
+	if st := api.last(); eng.restores != 1 || st.Status != StatusFailed || !strings.Contains(st.Error, "boom") || pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d last=%+v", eng.restores, st)
+	}
+	if rv, _ := a.readReverted(); rv == nil || rv.Generation != 7 || !rv.Reported {
+		t.Fatalf("persisted %+v", rv)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyApplyErrorRestoreFailsKeepsTimer(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = tryapply.Discard() })
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{err: errors.New("netlink: boom"), restoreErr: errors.New("netlink: stuck")}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "restore: restoring snapshot: netlink: stuck") {
+		t.Fatalf("got %v", err)
+	}
+	want := "apply: netlink: boom; restore: restoring snapshot: netlink: stuck; revert timer pending"
+	if st := api.last(); st != (Status{Status: StatusFailed, Generation: 7, Error: want}) || !pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("last=%+v", st)
+	}
+	if rv, _ := a.readReverted(); rv == nil || rv.Generation != 7 || rv.Status != StatusFailed {
+		t.Fatalf("persisted %+v", rv)
+	}
+	// The next cycle waits for the timer instead of re-applying.
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil || eng.applies != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("err=%v applies=%d", err, eng.applies)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyUnreachableRestoreFailsKeepsTimer(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = tryapply.Discard() })
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{onApply: func() { api.cut.Store(true) }, restoreErr: errors.New("netlink: stuck")}
+	eng.onRestore = func() { api.cut.Store(false) }
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); !errors.Is(err, errUnreachable) || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "revert timer pending") {
+		t.Fatalf("got %v", err)
+	}
+	st := api.last()
+	if st.Status != StatusFailed || st.Generation != 7 || !strings.HasPrefix(st.Error, errUnreachable.Error()) ||
+		!strings.HasSuffix(st.Error, "; restore: restoring snapshot: netlink: stuck; revert timer pending") || !pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("last=%+v", st)
+	}
+	if rv, _ := a.readReverted(); rv == nil || rv.Generation != 7 || !rv.Reported || cachedGen(t, a) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("persisted %+v cache=%d", rv, cachedGen(t, a))
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyRevertedGenerationSkippedAfterRestart(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.writeReverted(&reverted{Generation: 7, Reported: true}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.applies != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("reverted generation re-applied")
+	}
+
+	api.gen.Store(8)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if rv, _ := a.readReverted(); eng.applies != 1 || api.last().Generation != 8 || rv != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("applies=%d last=%+v reverted=%+v", eng.applies, api.last(), rv)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplySkipsWhileTryPending(t *testing.T) {
+	marker := filepath.Join(tryapply.Dir, "try-snapshot.json")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(marker, []byte("{}"), 0o600); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	defer os.Remove(marker)
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.applies != 0 || api.last().Status != "" {
+		t.Fatalf("applies=%d last=%+v", eng.applies, api.last())
+	}
+}
+
+// failArm makes arming the revert timer fail, as without systemd.
+func failArm(t *testing.T) {
+	orig := tryapply.Run
+	tryapply.Run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
+		timerCmds = append(timerCmds, name)
+		if name == "systemd-run" {
+			return errors.New("no systemd")
+		}
+		return nil
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(func() { tryapply.Run = orig })
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyArmFailureReportsFailedAndRetries(t *testing.T) {
+	failArm(t)
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "no systemd") {
+		t.Fatalf("got %v", err)
+	}
+	if st := api.last(); eng.applies != 0 || st.Status != StatusFailed || st.Generation != 7 || pending(t) || cachedGen(t, a) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("applies=%d last=%+v", eng.applies, st)
+	}
+	if rv, _ := a.readReverted(); rv != nil || a.lastReverted != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("arm failure marked generation reverted: %+v", rv)
+	}
+	tryapply.Run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
+		timerCmds = append(timerCmds, name)
+		return nil
+	}
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil || eng.applies != 1 || cachedGen(t, a) != 7 {
+		t.Fatalf("retry err=%v applies=%d", err, eng.applies)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCachedConfigAppliesWithoutArm(t *testing.T) {
+	failArm(t)
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	if err := a.Cache.Write([]byte(renderedYAML)); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	api.Close()
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.plain != 1 || eng.applies != 0 || pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("plain=%d safe=%d", eng.plain, eng.applies)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSafeApplyRevertedKeptInMemoryWhenPersistFails(t *testing.T) {
+	api := newFakeAPI(t, 7)
+	eng := &fakeEngine{onRestore: func() { api.cut.Store(false) }}
+	a := newAgent(t, api, eng)
+	// A non-empty directory in its place makes persisting reverted.json fail.
+	eng.onApply = func() {
+		api.cut.Store(true)
+		_ = os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(a.revertedPath(), "x"), 0o755)
+	}
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); !errors.Is(err, errUnreachable) {
+		t.Fatalf("want errUnreachable, got %v", err)
+	}
+	if err := os.RemoveAll(a.revertedPath()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if eng.restores != 1 || api.last().Status != StatusReverted || pending(t) {
+		t.Fatalf("restores=%d last=%+v", eng.restores, api.last())
+	}
+	if err := a.RunOnce(context.Background()); err != nil || eng.applies != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("reverted generation re-applied: err=%v applies=%d", err, eng.applies)
+	}
+}

internal/config/config.go

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"regexp"
 	"strings"
 
 	"gopkg.in/yaml.v3"
@@ -55,7 +56,9 @@ type Settings struct {
 	AddressFamily AddressFamily `yaml:"address_family,omitempty"`
 	IPForwarding  bool          `yaml:"ip_forwarding"`
 	LogLevel      string        `yaml:"log_level"`
-	TableName     string        `yaml:"table_name"`
+	// LogLimit rate-limits every log site, shorewall LOGLIMIT syntax rate/unit[:burst]; unset logs every hit.
+	LogLimit  string `yaml:"log_limit,omitempty"`
+	TableName string `yaml:"table_name"`
 
 	// When true, auto-generate CONTINUE policies for sub-zones to their parent zones.
 	ImplicitContinue bool `yaml:"implicit_continue,omitempty"`
@@ -112,6 +115,8 @@ func (c *Config) applyDefaults() {
 	}
 }
 
+var logLimitRe = regexp.MustCompile(`^[1-9][0-9]*/(sec|second|min|minute|hour|day)(:[1-9][0-9]*)?$`)
+
 var validAddressFamilies = map[AddressFamily]bool{
 	FamilyINET: true, FamilyIP: true, FamilyIP6: true,
 }
@@ -120,6 +125,9 @@ func (c *Config) validateSettings() error {
 	if !validAddressFamilies[c.Settings.AddressFamily] {
 		return fmt.Errorf("unknown address_family %q (use inet, ip, or ip6)", c.Settings.AddressFamily)
 	}
+	if l := c.Settings.LogLimit; l != "" && !logLimitRe.MatchString(l) {
+		return fmt.Errorf("invalid log_limit %q (use rate/{sec|min|hour|day}[:burst]; per-source s:/d: is not supported)", l)
+	}
 	for name, d := range map[string]PolicyAction{
 		"invalid_disposition":   c.Settings.InvalidDisposition,
 		"untracked_disposition": c.Settings.UntrackedDisposition,

internal/config/config_test.go

@@ -473,6 +473,20 @@ func TestValidateHosts(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			wantErr: "interface \"eth99\" not defined in interfaces",
 		},
+		{
+			name: "host interface matched by wildcard",
+			zones: map[string]Zone{
+				"fw":  {Type: ZoneFirewall},
+				"net": {Type: ZoneIP},
+				"lan": {Type: ZoneIP, Parents: []string{"net"}},
+			},
+			interfaces: []Interface{
+				{Zone: "net", Interface: "enp+"},
+			},
+			hosts: []Host{
+				{Zone: "lan", Interface: "enp2s0", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}},
+			},
+		},
 		{
 			name: "zone not defined",
 			zones: map[string]Zone{
@@ -531,6 +545,13 @@ func TestValidateHosts(t *testing.T) {
 			},
 			wantErr: "interface required",
 		},
+		{
+			name:       "invalid exclusion",
+			zones:      map[string]Zone{"fw": {Type: ZoneFirewall}, "net": {Type: ZoneIP}, "loc": {Type: ZoneIP}},
+			interfaces: []Interface{{Zone: "net", Interface: "eth0"}},
+			hosts:      []Host{{Zone: "loc", Interface: "eth0", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}, Exclusions: []string{"192.0.2.0/24!192.0.2.7"}}},
+			wantErr:    "invalid address",
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tt := range tests {
@@ -1069,3 +1090,15 @@ func TestValidateDispositions(t *testing.T) {
 		checkErr(t, c.Validate(), tc.wantErr)
 	}
 }
+
+func TestValidateLogLimit(t *testing.T) {
+	for v, ok := range map[string]bool{
+		"": true, "1/sec": true, "1/sec:10": true, "30/minute:5": true, "2/hour": true, "1/day:1": true,
+		"s:1/sec:10": false, "d:1/sec": false, "1": false, "1/week": false, "0/sec": false, "1/sec:": false,
+	} {
+		c := &Config{Settings: Settings{AddressFamily: FamilyINET, LogLimit: v}}
+		if err := c.validateSettings(); (err == nil) != ok {
+			t.Errorf("log_limit %q: err = %v, want ok=%v", v, err, ok)
+		}
+	}
+}

internal/config/hosts.go

@@ -1,6 +1,11 @@
 package config
 
-import "fmt"
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"net/netip"
+	"slices"
+	"strings"
+)
 
 type Host struct {
 	Zone       string      `yaml:"zone"`
@@ -40,7 +45,8 @@ func (c *Config) validateHosts() error {
 
 		ifaceFound := false
 		for _, iface := range c.Interfaces {
-			if iface.Interface == h.Interface || iface.PhysicalName() == h.Interface {
+			prefix, wild := strings.CutSuffix(iface.PhysicalName(), "+")
+			if iface.Interface == h.Interface || iface.PhysicalName() == h.Interface || (wild && strings.HasPrefix(h.Interface, prefix)) {
 				ifaceFound = true
 				break
 			}
@@ -52,6 +58,13 @@ func (c *Config) validateHosts() error {
 		if !h.Dynamic && len(h.Addresses) == 0 {
 			return fmt.Errorf("host[%d]: at least one address required (or set dynamic: true)", i)
 		}
+		for _, a := range slices.Concat(h.Addresses, h.Exclusions) {
+			if _, err := netip.ParsePrefix(a); err != nil {
+				if _, err := netip.ParseAddr(a); err != nil {
+					return fmt.Errorf("host[%d]: invalid address %q", i, a)
+				}
+			}
+		}
 	}
 	return nil
 }

internal/nftables/compiler.go

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net"
+	"net/netip"
 	"slices"
 	"sort"
 	"strconv"
@@ -65,10 +66,136 @@ func (c *Compiler) Compile() (*FirewallState, error) {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("static-nat: %w", err)
 	}
 	c.compileMSSClamp(state)
+	limitLogs(state, c.cfg.Settings.LogLimit)
+	if err := familyGuards(state, c.cfg.Settings.AddressFamily); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 
 	return state, nil
 }
 
+// familyGuards leaves each rule at most one meta nfproto guard, ahead of its first network-header
+// payload as nft emits it; nft list cannot decode repeated or conflicting guards. Rules are built per
+// family, so a conflict is a compiler bug and fails the compile. An ip/ip6 table is its own guard:
+// guards go and other-family rules are dropped.
+func familyGuards(state *FirewallState, family config.AddressFamily) error {
+	table := tableFamily(family)
+	for chain, rules := range state.Rules {
+		var out []ManagedRule
+		for _, r := range rules {
+			fam, ok := guardFamily(r.Exprs)
+			if !ok {
+				return fmt.Errorf("%s %s: conflicting address families", chain, r.Tag)
+			}
+			if table != 0 && fam != 0 && fam != table {
+				continue
+			}
+			r.Exprs = normalizeGuards(r.Exprs, fam, table != 0)
+			out = append(out, r)
+		}
+		state.Rules[chain] = out
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// tableFamily is the NFPROTO an ip/ip6 table is restricted to, 0 for inet.
+func tableFamily(family config.AddressFamily) byte {
+	return map[config.AddressFamily]byte{config.FamilyIP: unix.NFPROTO_IPV4, config.FamilyIP6: unix.NFPROTO_IPV6}[family]
+}
+
+// guardFamily is the family exprs' nfproto guards require (0: none); ok is false when they conflict.
+func guardFamily(exprs []expr.Any) (fam byte, ok bool) {
+	for i := range exprs {
+		if p := nfprotoGuard(exprs, i); p != 0 {
+			if fam != 0 && p != fam {
+				return 0, false
+			}
+			fam = p
+		}
+	}
+	return fam, true
+}
+
+// famsAgree reports whether families (0: any) can all hold for one packet.
+func famsAgree(fams ...byte) bool {
+	var f byte
+	for _, p := range fams {
+		if p != 0 && f != 0 && p != f {
+			return false
+		}
+		if p != 0 {
+			f = p
+		}
+	}
+	return true
+}
+
+func normalizeGuards(in []expr.Any, fam byte, strip bool) []expr.Any {
+	at := -1
+	out := make([]expr.Any, 0, len(in))
+	for i := 0; i < len(in); i++ {
+		if nfprotoGuard(in, i) != 0 {
+			if at < 0 {
+				at = len(out)
+			}
+			i++
+			continue
+		}
+		out = append(out, in[i])
+	}
+	if fam == 0 || strip {
+		return out
+	}
+	if l3 := slices.IndexFunc(out, func(e expr.Any) bool {
+		p, ok := e.(*expr.Payload)
+		return ok && p.Base == expr.PayloadBaseNetworkHeader
+	}); l3 >= 0 && l3 < at {
+		at = l3
+	}
+	return slices.Insert(out, at, matchNFProto(fam)...)
+}
+
+// nfprotoGuard is the family a meta nfproto == match at in[i] guards for, else 0.
+func nfprotoGuard(in []expr.Any, i int) byte {
+	m, ok := in[i].(*expr.Meta)
+	if !ok || m.Key != expr.MetaKeyNFPROTO || i+1 >= len(in) {
+		return 0
+	}
+	c, ok := in[i+1].(*expr.Cmp)
+	if !ok || c.Op != expr.CmpOpEq || c.Register != m.Register || len(c.Data) != 1 {
+		return 0
+	}
+	return c.Data[0]
+}
+
+// limitLogs puts a limit in front of every log expression. A limit stops the
+// whole rule, so like shorewall's separate LOG rule, a log followed by an action
+// splits into a limited log-only rule and the same rule without the log. A
+// LOG-action rule (nothing but rate limits after the log) keeps only the log rule.
+func limitLogs(state *FirewallState, spec string) {
+	if spec == "" {
+		return
+	}
+	for chain, rules := range state.Rules {
+		var out []ManagedRule
+		for _, r := range rules {
+			i := slices.IndexFunc(r.Exprs, func(e expr.Any) bool { _, ok := e.(*expr.Log); return ok })
+			if i < 0 {
+				out = append(out, r)
+				continue
+			}
+			logRule := r
+			logRule.Exprs = slices.Concat(r.Exprs[:i], parseRateLimit(spec), r.Exprs[i:i+1])
+			out = append(out, logRule)
+			if slices.ContainsFunc(r.Exprs[i+1:], func(e expr.Any) bool { _, ok := e.(*expr.Limit); return !ok }) {
+				r.Exprs = slices.Concat(r.Exprs[:i], r.Exprs[i+1:])
+				out = append(out, r)
+			}
+		}
+		state.Rules[chain] = out
+	}
+}
+
 func (c *Compiler) compileConntrackFastPath(state *FirewallState) error {
 	invalid := c.cfg.Settings.InvalidDisposition
 	if invalid == "" {
@@ -313,15 +440,15 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileConntrack(state *FirewallState) error {
 func (c *Compiler) compileConntrackPair(state *FirewallState, tag, chain string, ct config.ConntrackRule,
 	srcZone, srcAddr, dstZone, dstAddr string) error {
 	if _, ok := c.cfg.Zones[dstZone]; ok && chain == "raw_prerouting" &&
-		(dstAddr == "" || strings.HasPrefix(dstAddr, "!")) {
+		!narrows(dstAddr) {
 		return fmt.Errorf("conntrack DEST zone %q needs an address in prerouting", dstZone)
 	}
-	srcIfaces, dstIfaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces(srcZone, srcAddr), []string{""}
-	if chain == "raw_prerouting" && c.resolveZoneInterfaces(dstZone, dstAddr) == nil {
+	srcIfaces, dstIfaces := c.resolveZone(srcZone, srcAddr), []zoneMatch{{}}
+	if chain == "raw_prerouting" && c.resolveZone(dstZone, dstAddr) == nil {
 		return nil
 	}
 	if chain == "raw_output" {
-		srcIfaces, dstIfaces = []string{""}, c.resolveZoneInterfaces(dstZone, dstAddr)
+		srcIfaces, dstIfaces = []zoneMatch{{}}, c.resolveZone(dstZone, dstAddr)
 	}
 	out := chain
 	if ct.Action == config.ConntrackHelper {
@@ -335,6 +462,9 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileConntrackPair(state *FirewallState, tag, chain string,
 			}
 			for _, m := range matches {
 				exprs := m.exprs
+				if _, ok := guardFamily(exprs); !ok {
+					continue
+				}
 				switch ct.Action {
 				case config.ConntrackNoTrack:
 					exprs = append(exprs, &expr.Notrack{})
@@ -378,7 +508,7 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileRules(state *FirewallState) error {
 				return fmt.Errorf("rule[%d]: %w", i, err)
 			}
 			if len(matches)*c.specCount(rule.Source, rule.Dest, rule.OrigDest, fwZone, rule.Action) > 1 {
-				return fmt.Errorf("rule[%d]: ratelimit/connlimit cannot be combined with proto, port, zone or address lists (each expanded rule would get its own limiter)", i)
+				return fmt.Errorf("rule[%d]: ratelimit/connlimit cannot be combined with proto, port, zone or address lists, or with a negated address in an inet table (it expands to one rule per family); each expanded rule would get its own limiter", i)
 			}
 		}
 
@@ -414,24 +544,24 @@ func (c *Compiler) applyChainExtras(state *FirewallState, chain, tag string, rul
 			break
 		}
 
-		var extra []expr.Any
+		var match, extra []expr.Any
 		var replaceVerdict []expr.Any
 
 		if rule.User != "" {
-			extra = append(extra, matchUID(rule.User)...)
+			match = append(match, matchUID(rule.User)...)
 		}
 		if rule.Mark != "" {
-			extra = append(extra, matchMark(rule.Mark)...)
+			match = append(match, matchMark(rule.Mark)...)
+		}
+		if rule.ConnLimit != "" {
+			match = append(match, matchConnLimit(rule.ConnLimit)...)
+		}
+		if rule.Time != nil {
+			match = append(match, matchTime(rule.Time)...)
 		}
 		if rule.RateLimit != "" {
 			extra = append(extra, parseRateLimit(rule.RateLimit)...)
 		}
-		if rule.ConnLimit != "" {
-			extra = append(extra, matchConnLimit(rule.ConnLimit)...)
-		}
-		if rule.Time != nil {
-			extra = append(extra, matchTime(rule.Time)...)
-		}
 		if rule.SetMark != "" {
 			extra = append(extra, setMarkExprs(rule.SetMark)...)
 		}
@@ -439,21 +569,27 @@ func (c *Compiler) applyChainExtras(state *FirewallState, chain, tag string, rul
 			replaceVerdict = []expr.Any{&expr.Queue{Num: uint16(rule.NFQueue), Total: 1}}
 		}
 
-		if len(extra) > 0 || len(replaceVerdict) > 0 {
-			existingExprs := rules[idx].Exprs
-			var verdict []expr.Any
-			var nonVerdict []expr.Any
-			for _, e := range existingExprs {
-				if _, ok := e.(*expr.Verdict); ok {
+		if len(match) > 0 || len(extra) > 0 || len(replaceVerdict) > 0 {
+			var pre, post, verdict []expr.Any
+			for _, e := range rules[idx].Exprs {
+				switch e.(type) {
+				case *expr.Verdict:
 					verdict = append(verdict, e)
-				} else {
-					nonVerdict = append(nonVerdict, e)
+				case *expr.Log:
+					post = append(post, e)
+				default:
+					if len(post) > 0 {
+						post = append(post, e)
+					} else {
+						pre = append(pre, e)
+					}
 				}
 			}
 			if len(replaceVerdict) > 0 {
 				verdict = replaceVerdict
 			}
-			rules[idx].Exprs = append(append(nonVerdict, extra...), verdict...)
+			// matches go before the log so it only fires for packets the rule matches
+			rules[idx].Exprs = slices.Concat(pre, match, post, extra, verdict)
 		}
 	}
 	state.Rules[chain] = rules
@@ -550,19 +686,39 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileDNATAccept(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr
 	return nil
 }
 
-// specCount is how many zone/address combinations compileOneRule expands src and dst into.
+// specCount is how many rules compileOneRule emits for src and dst once familyGuards has dropped
+// cross-family address combinations and those outside an ip/ip6 table's family.
 func (c *Compiler) specCount(srcSpec, dstSpec, origDest, fwZone string, action config.RuleAction) int {
+	table := tableFamily(c.cfg.Settings.AddressFamily)
+	count := func(addrs ...string) int {
+		n := 0
+		var walk func(i int, fams []byte)
+		walk = func(i int, fams []byte) {
+			if !famsAgree(fams...) {
+				return
+			}
+			if i == len(addrs) {
+				n++
+				return
+			}
+			for _, a := range splitAddrs(addrs[i]) {
+				walk(i+1, append(fams, addrFamily(a)))
+			}
+		}
+		walk(0, []byte{table})
+		return n
+	}
 	n := 0
 	if action == config.RuleDNAT || action == config.RuleRedirect {
 		for _, src := range c.dnatSourceSpecs(srcSpec, fwZone) {
-			n += len(splitAddrs(src.Addr))
+			n += count(src.Addr, origDest)
 		}
-		return n * len(splitAddrs(origDest))
+		return n
 	}
 	for _, p := range c.zonePairs(srcSpec, dstSpec, fwZone) {
-		n += len(splitAddrs(p[0].Addr)) * len(splitAddrs(p[1].Addr))
+		n += count(p[0].Addr, p[1].Addr, origDest)
 	}
-	return n * len(splitAddrs(origDest))
+	return n
 }
 
 // zonePairs is the src/dst zone expansion of a non-DNAT rule, with fw added beside all/any.
@@ -628,19 +784,40 @@ func isZoneExclusion(spec string) bool {
 	return ok && (base == "all" || base == "any")
 }
 
-// splitAddrs yields one alternative per listed address; a negated list stays one AND-ed match.
+// splitAddrs yields one alternative per listed address. A negated list ("everything except") becomes
+// one AND-ed match per family: the family's negations, or the bare family (a /0) when it has none.
 func splitAddrs(addr string) []string {
-	if addr == "" || strings.HasPrefix(addr, "!") {
-		return []string{addr}
+	if addr == "" {
+		return []string{""}
 	}
-	return strings.Split(addr, ",")
+	if !strings.HasPrefix(addr, "!") {
+		return strings.Split(addr, ",")
+	}
+	v4, v6 := splitFamily(strings.Split(addr[1:], ","))
+	out := []string{"0.0.0.0/0", "::/0"}
+	if len(v4) > 0 {
+		out[0] = "!" + strings.Join(v4, ",")
+	}
+	if len(v6) > 0 {
+		out[1] = "!" + strings.Join(v6, ",")
+	}
+	return out
+}
+
+// narrows reports whether a splitAddrs alternative restricts addresses within its family.
+func narrows(addr string) bool {
+	if addr == "" || strings.HasPrefix(addr, "!") {
+		return false
+	}
+	p, err := parsePrefix(addr)
+	return err != nil || p.Bits() > 0
 }
 
 func (c *Compiler) compileZonePair(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr, dstZone, dstAddr, origDest, proto string,
 	dports, sports config.PortSpec, action config.RuleAction, logLevel string,
 	fwZone string, section config.RuleSection) error {
-	srcIfaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces(srcZone, srcAddr)
-	dstIfaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces(dstZone, dstAddr)
+	srcIfaces := c.resolveZone(srcZone, srcAddr)
+	dstIfaces := c.resolveZone(dstZone, dstAddr)
 	chain := c.selectChain(srcZone, dstZone, fwZone)
 	// ponytail: forward daddr is post-DNAT; lift with `ct original daddr` (expr.Ct Direction, google/nftables v0.3.0).
 	if origDest != "" && chain == "forward" {
@@ -654,7 +831,7 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileZonePair(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr,
 				return err
 			}
 			if origDest != "" {
-				od, err := matchOrigDest(origDest)
+				od, err := matchDestCIDR(origDest)
 				if err != nil {
 					return fmt.Errorf("origdest: %w", err)
 				}
@@ -665,6 +842,9 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileZonePair(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr,
 
 			for _, m := range matches {
 				exprs := m.exprs
+				if _, ok := guardFamily(exprs); !ok {
+					continue
+				}
 
 				if section != "" && section != config.SectionAll {
 					exprs = append(exprs, matchSection(section)...)
@@ -709,12 +889,12 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileDNATRule(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr,
 		dnatPort = uint16(p)
 	}
 
-	srcIfaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces(srcZone, srcAddr)
+	srcIfaces := c.resolveZone(srcZone, srcAddr)
 
 	var odExprs []expr.Any
 	if origDest != "" {
 		var err error
-		if odExprs, err = matchOrigDest(origDest); err != nil {
+		if odExprs, err = matchDestCIDR(origDest); err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("origdest: %w", err)
 		}
 	}
@@ -728,14 +908,18 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileDNATRule(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr,
 	if ip == nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("invalid DNAT address %q", dnatAddr)
 	}
+	natFam := byte(0)
+	if action != config.RuleRedirect {
+		natFam = addrFamily(dnatAddr)
+	}
 
 	for _, srcIface := range srcIfaces {
+		zm, err := zoneMatchExprs(srcIface, true)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
 		for _, m := range matches {
-			var exprs []expr.Any
-
-			if srcIface != "" {
-				exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(true, srcIface)...)
-			}
+			exprs := slices.Clone(zm)
 
 			if srcAddr != "" {
 				src, err := matchSourceCIDR(srcAddr)
@@ -745,6 +929,9 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileDNATRule(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr,
 				exprs = append(exprs, src...)
 			}
 			exprs = append(exprs, odExprs...)
+			if f, ok := guardFamily(exprs); !ok || !famsAgree(f, natFam) {
+				continue
+			}
 
 			exprs = append(exprs, m.exprs...)
 
@@ -822,31 +1009,35 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileDNATRule(state *FirewallState, tag, srcZone, srcAddr,
 func (c *Compiler) compilePolicies(state *FirewallState) error {
 	fwZone := c.cfg.FirewallZone()
 
+	overridden := map[string]bool{}
 	for i, pol := range c.cfg.Policy {
 		tag := fmt.Sprintf("policy:%d", i)
+		explicitIntra := pol.Source == pol.Dest && !isGlobalZone(pol.Source)
 
 		srcZones := c.expandZoneRef(pol.Source)
 		dstZones := c.expandZoneRef(pol.Dest)
 
 		for _, sz := range srcZones {
 			for _, dz := range dstZones {
-				if sz == dz && !strings.HasSuffix(pol.Source, "+") {
-					continue
+				if sz == dz {
+					if sz == fwZone || (!explicitIntra && !strings.HasSuffix(pol.Source, "+") && !strings.HasSuffix(pol.Dest, "+")) {
+						continue
+					}
+					overridden[sz] = true
 				}
 
 				chain := c.selectChain(sz, dz, fwZone)
-				srcIfaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces(sz, "")
-				dstIfaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces(dz, "")
+				srcIfaces := c.resolveZone(sz, "")
+				dstIfaces := c.resolveZone(dz, "")
 
 				for _, si := range srcIfaces {
 					for _, di := range dstIfaces {
-						var exprs []expr.Any
-
-						if si != "" {
-							exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(true, si)...)
+						if sz == dz && intraZoneSkip(si, di) || chain != "input" && !famsAgree(matchFamily(si), matchFamily(di)) {
+							continue
 						}
-						if di != "" && chain != "input" {
-							exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(false, di)...)
+						exprs, err := zonePairExprs(si, di, chain)
+						if err != nil {
+							return fmt.Errorf("policy[%d]: %w", i, err)
 						}
 
 						if pol.RateLimit != "" {
@@ -874,32 +1065,91 @@ func (c *Compiler) compilePolicies(state *FirewallState) error {
 		}
 	}
 
+	return c.compileImplicitIntraZone(state, overridden)
+}
+
+// compileImplicitIntraZone accepts traffic between different interfaces of one zone, shorewall's implicit intra-zone ACCEPT policy.
+func (c *Compiler) compileImplicitIntraZone(state *FirewallState, overridden map[string]bool) error {
+	fwZone := c.cfg.FirewallZone()
+	zones := make([]string, 0, len(c.cfg.Zones))
+	for z := range c.cfg.Zones {
+		zones = append(zones, z)
+	}
+	sort.Strings(zones)
+	for _, z := range zones {
+		if z == fwZone || overridden[z] {
+			continue
+		}
+		if len(c.cfg.ZoneInterfaces(z)) == 0 && !slices.ContainsFunc(c.cfg.Hosts, func(h config.Host) bool { return h.Zone == z }) {
+			continue
+		}
+		matches := c.resolveZone(z, "")
+		for _, si := range matches {
+			for _, di := range matches {
+				if intraZoneSkip(si, di) {
+					continue
+				}
+				exprs, err := zonePairExprs(si, di, "forward")
+				if err != nil {
+					return fmt.Errorf("zone %s: %w", z, err)
+				}
+				state.Rules["forward"] = append(state.Rules["forward"], ManagedRule{
+					Chain: "forward",
+					Exprs: append(exprs, &expr.Verdict{Kind: expr.VerdictAccept}),
+					Tag:   "intra:" + z,
+				})
+			}
+		}
+	}
 	return nil
 }
 
+// intraZoneSkip drops intra-zone pairs on one interface unless both are routeback hosts entries
+// (interface routeback is compileIntraZone's job), and pairs whose address families can never both match.
+func intraZoneSkip(si, di zoneMatch) bool {
+	if si.iface != "" && si.iface == di.iface && !(si.routeback && di.routeback) {
+		return true
+	}
+	a, b := matchFamily(si), matchFamily(di)
+	return a != 0 && b != 0 && a != b
+}
+
+// matchFamily is the NFPROTO a zoneMatch is guarded by: its host address's family, else fam.
+func matchFamily(m zoneMatch) byte {
+	if p, err := parsePrefix(m.addr); err == nil {
+		if p.Addr().Is4() {
+			return unix.NFPROTO_IPV4
+		}
+		return unix.NFPROTO_IPV6
+	}
+	return m.fam
+}
+
 func (c *Compiler) compileSNAT(state *FirewallState) error {
 	for i, snat := range c.cfg.SNAT {
 		tag := fmt.Sprintf("snat:%d", i)
 
-		var exprs []expr.Any
-
 		destIface, _ := splitZoneSpec(snat.Dest)
-		exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(false, destIface)...)
-
-		if snat.Source != "" {
-			srcExprs, err := matchSourceCIDR(snat.Source)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("snat[%d]: %w", i, err)
+		var heads [][]expr.Any
+		for _, src := range splitAddrs(snat.Source) {
+			head := matchIfaceName(false, destIface)
+			if src != "" {
+				srcExprs, err := matchSourceCIDR(src)
+				if err != nil {
+					return fmt.Errorf("snat[%d]: %w", i, err)
+				}
+				head = append(head, srcExprs...)
+			}
+			if snat.Action != config.SNATAddress || famsAgree(addrFamily(src), addrFamily(snat.Address)) {
+				heads = append(heads, head)
 			}
-			exprs = append(exprs, srcExprs...)
 		}
 
 		matches, err := l4Matches(snat.Proto, snat.DPort, snat.SPort)
 		if err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("snat[%d]: %w", i, err)
 		}
-		head := exprs
-		exprs = nil
+		var exprs []expr.Any
 
 		if snat.Mark != "" {
 			exprs = append(exprs, matchMark(snat.Mark)...)
@@ -945,12 +1195,14 @@ func (c *Compiler) compileSNAT(state *FirewallState) error {
 			}
 		}
 
-		for _, m := range matches {
-			state.Rules["postrouting"] = append(state.Rules["postrouting"], ManagedRule{
-				Chain: "postrouting",
-				Exprs: append(append(append([]expr.Any{}, head...), m.exprs...), exprs...),
-				Tag:   tag,
-			})
+		for _, head := range heads {
+			for _, m := range matches {
+				state.Rules["postrouting"] = append(state.Rules["postrouting"], ManagedRule{
+					Chain: "postrouting",
+					Exprs: slices.Concat(head, m.exprs, exprs),
+					Tag:   tag,
+				})
+			}
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -1178,11 +1430,25 @@ func (c *Compiler) selectChain(srcZone, dstZone, fwZone string) string {
 	return "forward"
 }
 
-// resolveZoneInterfaces returns nil (fail closed) for an unknown zone, or one with no interfaces unless a non-negated address match narrows the rule.
-func (c *Compiler) resolveZoneInterfaces(zone, addr string) []string {
+// zoneMatch classifies a packet into a zone: an interface (empty: any) and, for a hosts entry, one host
+// address; excl carves out hosts exclusions and the hosts of sub-zones, which shorewall matches first.
+// fam (an NFPROTO; addr's family when set, else 0: any) guards addr and excl so IPv4 offsets are
+// never compared against IPv6 bytes. routeback marks a hosts entry with the routeback option. notIface
+// carves narrower sub-zone host interfaces out of a wildcard iface; they get entries of their own.
+type zoneMatch struct {
+	iface, addr string
+	notIface    []string
+	excl        []string
+	fam         byte
+	routeback   bool
+}
+
+// resolveZone returns nil (fail closed) for an unknown zone, or one with neither interfaces nor hosts
+// unless a non-negated address match narrows the rule.
+func (c *Compiler) resolveZone(zone, addr string) []zoneMatch {
 	switch zone {
 	case "", "all", "all+", "any", "any+":
-		return []string{""}
+		return []zoneMatch{{}}
 	}
 	z, ok := c.cfg.Zones[zone]
 	if !ok {
@@ -1190,24 +1456,188 @@ func (c *Compiler) resolveZoneInterfaces(zone, addr string) []string {
 		return nil
 	}
 	if z.Type == config.ZoneFirewall {
-		return []string{""}
+		return []zoneMatch{{}}
 	}
-	if ifaces := c.cfg.ZoneInterfaces(zone); len(ifaces) > 0 {
-		return ifaces
+	var out []zoneMatch
+	hasHosts := false
+	for _, iface := range c.cfg.ZoneInterfaces(zone) {
+		for _, sp := range c.subZoneSplit(zone, iface) {
+			if len(sp.sub) == 0 {
+				out = append(out, zoneMatch{iface: sp.iface, notIface: sp.not})
+			} else {
+				v4, v6 := splitFamily(sp.sub)
+				out = append(out, zoneMatch{iface: sp.iface, notIface: sp.not, excl: v4, fam: unix.NFPROTO_IPV4},
+					zoneMatch{iface: sp.iface, notIface: sp.not, excl: v6, fam: unix.NFPROTO_IPV6})
+			}
+			for _, b := range sp.back {
+				if addrsOverlap(b, addr) {
+					out = append(out, zoneMatch{iface: sp.iface, notIface: sp.not, addr: b})
+				}
+			}
+		}
 	}
-	if addr != "" && !strings.HasPrefix(addr, "!") {
-		return []string{""}
+	for _, h := range c.cfg.Hosts {
+		if h.Zone != zone {
+			continue
+		}
+		hasHosts = true
+		for _, sp := range c.subZoneSplit(zone, h.Interface) {
+			v4, v6 := splitFamily(slices.Concat(h.Exclusions, sp.sub))
+			for _, a := range h.Addresses {
+				if addrsOverlap(a, addr) {
+					m := zoneMatch{iface: sp.iface, notIface: sp.not, addr: a, excl: v6, routeback: h.Options.RouteBack}
+					if p, err := parsePrefix(a); err == nil && p.Addr().Is4() {
+						m.excl = v4
+					}
+					out = append(out, m)
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if len(out) > 0 || hasHosts {
+		return out
+	}
+	if narrows(addr) {
+		return []zoneMatch{{}}
 	}
 	if !c.warned[zone] {
 		if c.warned == nil {
 			c.warned = map[string]bool{}
 		}
 		c.warned[zone] = true
-		slog.Warn("compiler: zone has no interfaces, skipping its rules", "zone", zone)
+		slog.Warn("compiler: zone has no interfaces or hosts, skipping its rules", "zone", zone)
 	}
 	return nil
 }
 
+// subZoneSplit partitions iface for zone's sub-zone hosts, as shorewall matches them: the hosts on an
+// interface covering iface exclude their addresses (sub) on all of it, while a host interface strictly
+// inside a wildcard iface is carved out (not) into its own entry, so its addresses stay in zone on every
+// other interface the wildcard matches. back lists the sub-zone hosts' exclusions, which fall back to zone.
+type subZoneSplit struct {
+	iface     string
+	not       []string
+	sub, back []string
+}
+
+func (c *Compiler) subZoneSplit(zone, iface string) []subZoneSplit {
+	top := subZoneSplit{iface: iface}
+	var inner []string
+	for _, h := range c.cfg.Hosts {
+		switch {
+		case !c.cfg.IsSubZone(h.Zone, zone):
+		case ifaceCovers(h.Interface, iface):
+			top.sub = append(top.sub, h.Addresses...)
+			top.back = append(top.back, h.Exclusions...)
+		case ifaceCovers(iface, h.Interface) && !slices.Contains(inner, h.Interface):
+			inner = append(inner, h.Interface)
+		}
+	}
+	var rest []subZoneSplit
+	for _, h := range inner {
+		if slices.ContainsFunc(inner, func(o string) bool { return o != h && ifaceCovers(o, h) }) {
+			continue
+		}
+		top.not = append(top.not, h)
+		rest = append(rest, c.subZoneSplit(zone, h)...)
+	}
+	return append([]subZoneSplit{top}, rest...)
+}
+
+// ifaceCovers reports whether every interface name b matches is also matched by a ("+" suffix: prefix wildcard).
+func ifaceCovers(a, b string) bool {
+	if pa, ok := strings.CutSuffix(a, "+"); ok {
+		return strings.HasPrefix(strings.TrimSuffix(b, "+"), pa)
+	}
+	return a == b
+}
+
+// addrsOverlap reports whether a host address can match a rule address; unparsable or negated rule addresses keep the host.
+func addrsOverlap(host, rule string) bool {
+	if rule == "" || strings.HasPrefix(rule, "!") {
+		return true
+	}
+	h, err := parsePrefix(host)
+	if err != nil {
+		return true
+	}
+	for _, r := range strings.Split(rule, ",") {
+		if p, err := parsePrefix(r); err != nil || p.Overlaps(h) {
+			return true
+		}
+	}
+	return false
+}
+
+// splitFamily partitions addresses by family; unparsable ones go to v6 so zoneMatchExprs still rejects them.
+func splitFamily(addrs []string) (v4, v6 []string) {
+	for _, a := range addrs {
+		if p, err := parsePrefix(a); err == nil && p.Addr().Is4() {
+			v4 = append(v4, a)
+		} else {
+			v6 = append(v6, a)
+		}
+	}
+	return v4, v6
+}
+
+func parsePrefix(s string) (netip.Prefix, error) {
+	if a, err := netip.ParseAddr(s); err == nil {
+		return netip.PrefixFrom(a, a.BitLen()), nil
+	}
+	return netip.ParsePrefix(s)
+}
+
+// zoneMatchExprs matches a zone on the in (src) or out interface plus its host address and exclusions,
+// all guarded by m.fam so an IPv4 address never matches IPv6 bytes in an inet table.
+func zoneMatchExprs(m zoneMatch, src bool) ([]expr.Any, error) {
+	var out []expr.Any
+	if m.iface != "" {
+		out = matchIfaceName(src, m.iface)
+	}
+	for _, n := range m.notIface {
+		e := matchIfaceName(src, n)
+		e[1].(*expr.Cmp).Op = expr.CmpOpNeq
+		out = append(out, e...)
+	}
+	var addr []expr.Any
+	if m.addr != "" {
+		p, err := parsePrefix(m.addr)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid host address %q", m.addr)
+		}
+		if addr, err = matchAddrCIDR(m.addr, src); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		m.fam = unix.NFPROTO_IPV6
+		if p.Addr().Is4() {
+			m.fam = unix.NFPROTO_IPV4
+		}
+	}
+	if m.fam != 0 {
+		out = append(out, matchNFProto(m.fam)...)
+	}
+	out = append(out, addr...)
+	if len(m.excl) > 0 {
+		e, err := matchAddrCIDR("!"+strings.Join(m.excl, ","), src)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		out = append(out, e...)
+	}
+	return out, nil
+}
+
+// zonePairExprs matches the source zone inbound and, outside input, the dest zone outbound.
+func zonePairExprs(src, dst zoneMatch, chain string) ([]expr.Any, error) {
+	out, err := zoneMatchExprs(src, true)
+	if err != nil || chain == "input" {
+		return out, err
+	}
+	d, err := zoneMatchExprs(dst, false)
+	return append(out, d...), err
+}
+
 func (c *Compiler) expandZoneRef(ref string) []string {
 	base := ref
 	var excluded map[string]bool
@@ -1237,14 +1667,10 @@ func (c *Compiler) expandZoneRef(ref string) []string {
 	return []string{base}
 }
 
-func (c *Compiler) buildMatchExprs(srcIface, dstIface, chain, proto string, dports, sports config.PortSpec, srcAddr, dstAddr string) ([]l4Match, error) {
-	var exprs []expr.Any
-
-	if srcIface != "" {
-		exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(true, srcIface)...)
-	}
-	if dstIface != "" && chain != "input" {
-		exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(false, dstIface)...)
+func (c *Compiler) buildMatchExprs(srcIface, dstIface zoneMatch, chain, proto string, dports, sports config.PortSpec, srcAddr, dstAddr string) ([]l4Match, error) {
+	exprs, err := zonePairExprs(srcIface, dstIface, chain)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
 
 	if srcAddr != "" {
@@ -1465,6 +1891,7 @@ func matchTCPFlags(flags, mask byte) []expr.Any {
 func matchSmurfDrop(iface string) []expr.Any {
 	var exprs []expr.Any
 	exprs = append(exprs, matchIfaceName(true, iface)...)
+	exprs = append(exprs, matchNFProto(unix.NFPROTO_IPV4)...)
 	exprs = append(exprs,
 		&expr.Payload{DestRegister: 1, Base: expr.PayloadBaseNetworkHeader, Offset: 12, Len: 4},
 		&expr.Bitwise{
@@ -1625,32 +2052,35 @@ func parseSPortOrRange(s string) ([]expr.Any, error) {
 }
 
 func matchSourceCIDR(cidr string) ([]expr.Any, error) {
-	return matchAddrCIDR(cidr, true)
+	return matchGuardedCIDR(cidr, true)
 }
 
 func matchDestCIDR(cidr string) ([]expr.Any, error) {
-	return matchAddrCIDR(cidr, false)
+	return matchGuardedCIDR(cidr, false)
 }
 
-// matchOrigDest guards the daddr match with the address's nfproto so it is family-correct in the inet table.
-func matchOrigDest(addr string) ([]expr.Any, error) {
-	var proto byte
-	for i, a := range strings.Split(strings.TrimPrefix(addr, "!"), ",") {
-		a, _, _ = strings.Cut(a, "/")
-		p := byte(unix.NFPROTO_IPV6)
-		if ip := net.ParseIP(a); ip != nil && ip.To4() != nil {
-			p = unix.NFPROTO_IPV4
-		}
-		if i > 0 && p != proto {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("%q mixes IPv4 and IPv6 addresses", addr)
-		}
-		proto = p
+// matchGuardedCIDR guards a single-family splitAddrs alternative with its nfproto; a /0 is the guard alone.
+func matchGuardedCIDR(cidr string, isSrc bool) ([]expr.Any, error) {
+	if !narrows(cidr) && !strings.HasPrefix(cidr, "!") {
+		return matchNFProto(addrFamily(cidr)), nil
 	}
-	dst, err := matchDestCIDR(addr)
+	e, err := matchAddrCIDR(cidr, isSrc)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	return append(matchNFProto(proto), dst...), nil
+	return append(matchNFProto(addrFamily(cidr)), e...), nil
+}
+
+// addrFamily is the NFPROTO of a single-family splitAddrs alternative, 0 for none; unparsable is IPv6.
+func addrFamily(list string) byte {
+	if list == "" {
+		return 0
+	}
+	a, _, _ := strings.Cut(strings.TrimPrefix(list, "!"), ",")
+	if p, err := parsePrefix(a); err == nil && p.Addr().Is4() {
+		return unix.NFPROTO_IPV4
+	}
+	return unix.NFPROTO_IPV6
 }
 
 func matchNFProto(proto byte) []expr.Any {

internal/nftables/compiler_test.go

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import (
 	"log/slog"
 	"net"
 	"reflect"
+	"slices"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -144,19 +145,17 @@ func TestCompiler_ResolveZoneInterfaces(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	c := NewCompiler(cfg)
 
-	ifaces := c.resolveZoneInterfaces("net", "")
-	if len(ifaces) != 1 || ifaces[0] != "eth0" {
-		t.Errorf("resolveZoneInterfaces(net) = %v, want [eth0]", ifaces)
-	}
-
-	ifaces = c.resolveZoneInterfaces("all", "")
-	if len(ifaces) != 1 || ifaces[0] != "" {
-		t.Errorf("resolveZoneInterfaces(all) = %v, want [\"\"]", ifaces)
-	}
-
-	ifaces = c.resolveZoneInterfaces("fw", "")
-	if len(ifaces) != 1 || ifaces[0] != "" {
-		t.Errorf("resolveZoneInterfaces(fw) = %v, want [\"\"]", ifaces)
+	for _, tt := range []struct {
+		zone string
+		want []zoneMatch
+	}{
+		{"net", []zoneMatch{{iface: "eth0"}}},
+		{"all", []zoneMatch{{}}},
+		{"fw", []zoneMatch{{}}},
+	} {
+		if got := c.resolveZone(tt.zone, ""); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, tt.want) {
+			t.Errorf("resolveZone(%s) = %v, want %v", tt.zone, got, tt.want)
+		}
 	}
 }
 
@@ -211,7 +210,7 @@ func TestMatchSourceCIDR_IPv6(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, tt := range tests {
-		exprs, err := matchSourceCIDR(tt.input)
+		exprs, err := matchAddrCIDR(tt.input, true)
 		if tt.wantErr {
 			if err == nil {
 				t.Errorf("matchSourceCIDR(%q) should fail", tt.input)
@@ -242,7 +241,7 @@ func TestMatchDestCIDR_IPv6(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, tt := range tests {
-		exprs, err := matchDestCIDR(tt.input)
+		exprs, err := matchAddrCIDR(tt.input, false)
 		if tt.wantErr {
 			if err == nil {
 				t.Errorf("matchDestCIDR(%q) should fail", tt.input)
@@ -962,7 +961,7 @@ func TestCompile_RateLimit(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestNegatedAddress(t *testing.T) {
-	exprs, err := matchSourceCIDR("!192.168.1.0/24")
+	exprs, err := matchAddrCIDR("!192.168.1.0/24", true)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("matchSourceCIDR(!192.168.1.0/24) error: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -974,7 +973,7 @@ func TestNegatedAddress(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Errorf("negated address should use CmpOpNeq, got %v", cmp.Op)
 	}
 
-	exprs, err = matchDestCIDR("!10.0.0.1")
+	exprs, err = matchAddrCIDR("!10.0.0.1", false)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("matchDestCIDR(!10.0.0.1) error: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -1849,13 +1848,13 @@ func TestCompile_InterfacelessZonesFailClosed(t *testing.T) {
 			c.Zones["hst"] = config.Zone{Type: config.ZoneIP}
 			c.Hosts = []config.Host{{Zone: "hst", Interface: "eth0", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}}}
 			c.Policy = []config.Policy{{Source: "fw", Dest: "hst", Action: config.PolicyAccept}}
-		}, "policy:0", 0, []string{"hst"}},
+		}, "policy:0", 1, nil},
 		{"fw all expansion keeps zones with interfaces", func(c *config.Config) {
 			ipsec(c)
 			c.Zones["hst"] = config.Zone{Type: config.ZoneIP}
 			c.Hosts = []config.Host{{Zone: "hst", Interface: "eth0", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}}}
 			c.Policy = []config.Policy{{Source: "fw", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop}}
-		}, "policy:0", 1, []string{"hst", "ips"}},
+		}, "policy:0", 2, []string{"ips"}},
 		{"negated address does not scope", rule("ips:!192.0.2.1"), "rule:0", 0, []string{"ips"}},
 		{"address scopes", rule("ips:192.0.2.1"), "rule:0", 1, []string{"ips"}},
 	}
@@ -1895,6 +1894,19 @@ func TestCompile_InterfacelessZonesFailClosed(t *testing.T) {
 func describeRule(r ManagedRule) string {
 	var parts []string
 	for i, e := range r.Exprs {
+		if p, ok := e.(*expr.Payload); ok && p.Base == expr.PayloadBaseNetworkHeader && i+2 < len(r.Exprs) {
+			bw, okb := r.Exprs[i+1].(*expr.Bitwise)
+			cmp, okc := r.Exprs[i+2].(*expr.Cmp)
+			if okb && okc {
+				name := map[uint32]string{12: "saddr", 16: "daddr", 8: "saddr", 24: "daddr"}[p.Offset]
+				if cmp.Op == expr.CmpOpNeq {
+					name = "!" + name
+				}
+				ones, _ := net.IPMask(bw.Mask).Size()
+				parts = append(parts, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s/%d", name, net.IP(cmp.Data), ones))
+				continue
+			}
+		}
 		cmp, ok := func() (*expr.Cmp, bool) {
 			if i+1 >= len(r.Exprs) {
 				return nil, false
@@ -1909,9 +1921,19 @@ func describeRule(r ManagedRule) string {
 		case *expr.Meta:
 			switch m.Key {
 			case expr.MetaKeyIIFNAME:
-				parts = append(parts, "iif="+strings.TrimRight(string(cmp.Data), "\x00"))
+				op := "="
+				if cmp.Op == expr.CmpOpNeq {
+					op = "!="
+				}
+				parts = append(parts, "iif"+op+strings.TrimRight(string(cmp.Data), "\x00"))
 			case expr.MetaKeyOIFNAME:
-				parts = append(parts, "oif="+strings.TrimRight(string(cmp.Data), "\x00"))
+				op := "="
+				if cmp.Op == expr.CmpOpNeq {
+					op = "!="
+				}
+				parts = append(parts, "oif"+op+strings.TrimRight(string(cmp.Data), "\x00"))
+			case expr.MetaKeyNFPROTO:
+				parts = append(parts, map[byte]string{unix.NFPROTO_IPV4: "ip4", unix.NFPROTO_IPV6: "ip6"}[cmp.Data[0]])
 			}
 		case *expr.Payload:
 			if m.Base == expr.PayloadBaseNetworkHeader && (m.Len == 4 || m.Len == 16) {
@@ -1954,57 +1976,57 @@ func TestCompile_CommaZoneLists(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "address list after colon belongs to one zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "lan", Dest: "net:192.0.2.1,198.51.100.1"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"forward": {"iif=eth1 oif=eth0 daddr=192.0.2.1", "iif=eth1 oif=eth0 daddr=198.51.100.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"forward": {"iif=eth1 oif=eth0 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.1", "iif=eth1 oif=eth0 ip4 daddr=198.51.100.1"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "zone:address inside a list",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "lan,svr:203.0.113.7", Dest: "fw"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth1", "iif=eth2 saddr=203.0.113.7"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth1", "iif=eth2 ip4 saddr=203.0.113.7"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat source list",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net,lan", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
 			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0", "iif=eth1"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth1 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth1 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat source list skips the target zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net,svr", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0"}, "forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0"}, "forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat lone source zone may equal the target zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "svr", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth2"}, "forward": {"iif=eth2 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth2"}, "forward": {"iif=eth2 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat exclusion source skips the target zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "all!fw,anycast", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
 			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth1", "iif=eth0"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth1 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth1 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat intrazone exclusion source keeps the target zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "all+!fw,anycast,lan", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
 			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0", "iif=eth2"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth2 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth2 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat all source expands per zone and skips fw and the target zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "all", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
 			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth3", "iif=eth1", "iif=eth0"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth3 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth1 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth3 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth1 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat any+ source keeps the target zone",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "any+", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
 			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth3", "iif=eth1", "iif=eth0", "iif=eth2"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth3 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth1 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth2 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth3 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth1 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth2 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat to fw accepts in input",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net", Dest: "fw:192.0.2.1", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0"}, "input": {"iif=eth0 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0"}, "input": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "redirect accepts in input without daddr",
@@ -2014,13 +2036,13 @@ func TestCompile_CommaZoneLists(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "dnat source address list",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net:192.0.2.5,198.51.100.5", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 saddr=192.0.2.5", "iif=eth0 saddr=198.51.100.5"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 saddr=192.0.2.5 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 saddr=198.51.100.5 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.5", "iif=eth0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.5"},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.5 daddr=192.0.2.10", "iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.5 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
 		},
 		{
-			name: "negated address list stays one AND-ed rule",
+			name: "negated address list is one AND-ed rule per family",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net:!192.0.2.5,198.51.100.5", Dest: "fw"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth0 !saddr=192.0.2.5 !saddr=198.51.100.5"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth0 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.5 !saddr=198.51.100.5", "iif=eth0 ip6"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "zone named like all/any keyword is a plain zone",
@@ -2035,7 +2057,7 @@ func TestCompile_CommaZoneLists(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "interface-less zone kept when address narrows it",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "lan", Dest: "vpn:192.0.2.1"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"forward": {"iif=eth1 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"forward": {"iif=eth1 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "fw source matches dest zone oif",
@@ -2045,30 +2067,30 @@ func TestCompile_CommaZoneLists(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "fw to all has no oif",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "fw", Dest: "all:192.0.2.1"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"output": {"daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"output": {"ip4 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat origdest",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.17", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}, OrigDest: "203.0.113.5"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 daddr=203.0.113.5"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.17"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.5"},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.17"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat origdest list",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.17", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}, OrigDest: "203.0.113.5,203.0.113.6"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 daddr=203.0.113.5", "iif=eth0 daddr=203.0.113.6"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.17"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.5", "iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.6"},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.17"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat negated origdest list",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net", Dest: "svr:192.0.2.17", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}, OrigDest: "!203.0.113.5,203.0.113.6"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 !daddr=203.0.113.5 !daddr=203.0.113.6"},
-				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 daddr=192.0.2.17"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 !daddr=203.0.113.5 !daddr=203.0.113.6"},
+				"forward": {"iif=eth0 oif=eth2 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.17"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "accept origdest",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"22"}, OrigDest: "203.0.113.5"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth0 daddr=203.0.113.5"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.5"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "origdest does not scope interface-less zone",
@@ -2078,7 +2100,7 @@ func TestCompile_CommaZoneLists(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "accept ipv6 origdest",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"22"}, OrigDest: "2001:db8::5"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth0 daddr=2001:db8::5"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"iif=eth0 ip6 daddr=2001:db8::5"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name:   "blrule zone list",
@@ -2473,7 +2495,7 @@ func TestCompile_RejectPerProto(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestNegatedAddressList(t *testing.T) {
-	exprs, err := matchDestCIDR("!192.0.2.1,198.51.100.1")
+	exprs, err := matchAddrCIDR("!192.0.2.1,198.51.100.1", false)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("matchDestCIDR error: %v", err)
 	}
@@ -2591,25 +2613,6 @@ func TestCompile_ColonRanges(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestMatchOrigDest_FamilyGuard(t *testing.T) {
-	for addr, want := range map[string]byte{
-		"203.0.113.5":               unix.NFPROTO_IPV4,
-		"!203.0.113.0/24,192.0.2.1": unix.NFPROTO_IPV4,
-		"2001:db8::5":               unix.NFPROTO_IPV6,
-	} {
-		e, err := matchOrigDest(addr)
-		if err != nil {
-			t.Fatalf("%s: %v", addr, err)
-		}
-		if m, ok := e[0].(*expr.Meta); !ok || m.Key != expr.MetaKeyNFPROTO || e[1].(*expr.Cmp).Data[0] != want {
-			t.Errorf("%s: missing nfproto %d guard: %v", addr, want, e[:2])
-		}
-	}
-	if _, err := matchOrigDest("!203.0.113.5,2001:db8::5"); err == nil {
-		t.Error("mixed IPv4/IPv6 origdest: want error")
-	}
-}
-
 func TestCompile_OrigDestForwardRejected(t *testing.T) {
 	cfg := &config.Config{
 		Settings:   config.Settings{TableName: "test", AddressFamily: config.FamilyINET},
@@ -2699,7 +2702,7 @@ func TestCompile_ConntrackZones(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "source and dest addresses",
 			ct:   config.ConntrackRule{Action: config.ConntrackDrop, Source: "net:192.0.2.1,198.51.100.1", Dest: "fw:203.0.113.1"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 saddr=192.0.2.1 daddr=203.0.113.1", "iif=eth0 saddr=198.51.100.1 daddr=203.0.113.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.1 daddr=203.0.113.1", "iif=eth0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.1 daddr=203.0.113.1"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "fw source goes to raw_output with dest oif",
@@ -2709,7 +2712,7 @@ func TestCompile_ConntrackZones(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "all matches no interface",
 			ct:   config.ConntrackRule{Action: config.ConntrackNoTrack, Source: "all", Dest: "fw:192.0.2.53"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"daddr=192.0.2.53"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"ip4 daddr=192.0.2.53"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "interface-less zone fails closed",
@@ -2767,9 +2770,9 @@ func TestCompile_ConntrackZones(t *testing.T) {
 			want: map[string][]string{"raw_output": {"oif=eth1"}},
 		},
 		{
-			name: "negated addresses stay one AND-ed match",
+			name: "negated addresses are one AND-ed match per family",
 			ct:   config.ConntrackRule{Action: config.ConntrackDrop, Source: "net:!192.0.2.1,198.51.100.1"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 !saddr=192.0.2.1 !saddr=198.51.100.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.1 !saddr=198.51.100.1", "iif=eth0 ip6"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "sport",
@@ -2789,7 +2792,7 @@ func TestCompile_ConntrackZones(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "fw dest zone with address matches daddr",
 			ct:   config.ConntrackRule{Action: config.ConntrackNoTrack, Source: "net", Dest: "fw:192.0.2.1"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.1"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "unknown zone fails closed",
@@ -2844,7 +2847,7 @@ func TestCompile_ConntrackZones(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "dest zone with address matches daddr",
 			ct:   config.ConntrackRule{Action: config.ConntrackNoTrack, Source: "net", Dest: "lan:203.0.113.10"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 daddr=203.0.113.10"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"raw_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.10"}},
 		},
 	}
 	for _, tt := range tests {
@@ -2943,7 +2946,7 @@ func TestCompile_ConntrackHelperZones(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "dest zone with address in prerouting",
 			ct:   config.ConntrackRule{Source: "net", Dest: "lan:203.0.113.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"21"}},
-			want: map[string][]string{"helper_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 daddr=203.0.113.10"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"helper_prerouting": {"iif=eth0 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.10"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name:    "dest zone without address is rejected in prerouting",
@@ -3009,7 +3012,7 @@ func TestCompile_AllIncludesFirewallMatches(t *testing.T) {
 		{
 			name: "all address kept on added fw rules",
 			rule: config.Rule{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "all:192.0.2.5", Dest: "all"},
-			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"saddr=192.0.2.5"}, "output": {"saddr=192.0.2.5"}, "forward": {"saddr=192.0.2.5"}},
+			want: map[string][]string{"input": {"ip4 saddr=192.0.2.5"}, "output": {"ip4 saddr=192.0.2.5"}, "forward": {"ip4 saddr=192.0.2.5"}},
 		},
 		{
 			name: "dnat with all source skips fw",
@@ -3155,3 +3158,609 @@ func TestCompile_Dispositions(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 }
+
+func TestCompile_LogLimit(t *testing.T) {
+	cfg := &config.Config{
+		Settings: config.Settings{
+			TableName:     "test",
+			AddressFamily: config.FamilyINET,
+			LogLimit:      "1/sec:10",
+		},
+		Zones: map[string]config.Zone{
+			"fw":  {Type: config.ZoneFirewall},
+			"net": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+		},
+		Interfaces: []config.Interface{{Zone: "net", Interface: "eth0"}},
+		Policy: []config.Policy{
+			{Source: "net", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop, Log: "info"},
+		},
+		Rules: []config.Rule{
+			{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net:192.0.2.1", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"22"}, Log: "info"},
+			{Action: config.RuleLog, Source: "net:198.51.100.0/24", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"23"}, Log: "info"},
+		},
+		PortGroups: make(map[string]config.PortGroup),
+	}
+	state, err := NewCompiler(cfg).Compile()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Compile() error: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	want := &expr.Limit{Type: expr.LimitTypePkts, Rate: 1, Unit: expr.LimitTimeSecond, Burst: 10}
+	byTag := map[string][]ManagedRule{}
+	for _, r := range state.Rules["input"] {
+		byTag[r.Tag] = append(byTag[r.Tag], r)
+	}
+	for tag, n := range map[string]int{"policy:0": 2, "rule:0": 2, "rule:1": 1} {
+		rs := byTag[tag]
+		if len(rs) != n {
+			t.Fatalf("%s: %d rules, want %d", tag, len(rs), n)
+		}
+		logRule := rs[0].Exprs
+		l := len(logRule)
+		if l < 2 || !reflect.DeepEqual(logRule[l-2], want) {
+			t.Errorf("%s: want limit before log, got %#v", tag, logRule)
+		}
+		if _, ok := logRule[l-1].(*expr.Log); !ok {
+			t.Errorf("%s: log rule must end in log, got %T", tag, logRule[l-1])
+		}
+		for _, e := range rs[n-1].Exprs[:len(rs[n-1].Exprs)-1] {
+			if _, ok := e.(*expr.Log); n == 2 && ok {
+				t.Errorf("%s: verdict rule still logs", tag)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if logs := byTag["policy:0"]; len(logs) == 2 {
+		if _, ok := logs[1].Exprs[len(logs[1].Exprs)-1].(*expr.Verdict); !ok {
+			t.Errorf("policy verdict rule must end in a verdict")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_NoLogLimitKeepsInlineLog(t *testing.T) {
+	cfg := &config.Config{
+		Settings:   config.Settings{TableName: "test", AddressFamily: config.FamilyINET},
+		Zones:      map[string]config.Zone{"fw": {Type: config.ZoneFirewall}, "net": {Type: config.ZoneIP}},
+		Interfaces: []config.Interface{{Zone: "net", Interface: "eth0"}},
+		Policy:     []config.Policy{{Source: "net", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop, Log: "info"}},
+		PortGroups: make(map[string]config.PortGroup),
+	}
+	state, err := NewCompiler(cfg).Compile()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	for _, r := range state.Rules["input"] {
+		for _, e := range r.Exprs {
+			if _, ok := e.(*expr.Limit); ok {
+				t.Errorf("%s: unexpected limit without log_limit", r.Tag)
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_LogLimitSplitsAroundExtrasAndNAT(t *testing.T) {
+	cfg := listCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+		c.Settings.LogLimit = "1/sec:10"
+		c.Zones["loc"] = config.Zone{Type: config.ZoneIP}
+		c.Interfaces = append(c.Interfaces, config.Interface{Zone: "loc", Interface: "eth1"})
+		c.Rules = []config.Rule{
+			{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net:192.0.2.1", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"22"}, Log: "info",
+				Mark: "0x1", User: "0", Time: &config.TimeSpec{Start: "08:00", Stop: "17:00"}, RateLimit: "5/sec:20"},
+			{Action: config.RuleLog, Source: "net:192.0.2.2", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"23"}, Log: "info",
+				Mark: "0x2", RateLimit: "5/sec:20"},
+			{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "net", Dest: "loc:198.51.100.10:80", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"8000"}, Log: "info"},
+			{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net:192.0.2.3", Dest: "loc", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"443"}, Log: "info"},
+		}
+		c.SNAT = []config.SNATRule{{Action: config.SNATAddress, Source: "198.51.100.0/24", Dest: "eth0", Address: "203.0.113.7", Mark: "0x3", Log: "info"}}
+	})
+	state, err := NewCompiler(cfg).Compile()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Compile() error: %v", err)
+	}
+	logLimit := &expr.Limit{Type: expr.LimitTypePkts, Rate: 1, Unit: expr.LimitTimeSecond, Burst: 10}
+	kinds := func(exprs []expr.Any) (logs, limits, marks, uids int) {
+		for _, e := range exprs {
+			switch v := e.(type) {
+			case *expr.Log:
+				logs++
+			case *expr.Limit:
+				limits++
+			case *expr.Meta:
+				if v.Key == expr.MetaKeyMARK && !v.SourceRegister {
+					marks++
+				}
+				if v.Key == expr.MetaKeySKUID {
+					uids++
+				}
+			}
+		}
+		return
+	}
+	check := func(name string, rs []ManagedRule, n, wantMarks, wantUIDs int) []expr.Any {
+		t.Helper()
+		if len(rs) != n {
+			t.Fatalf("%s: %d rules, want %d", name, len(rs), n)
+		}
+		l := rs[0].Exprs
+		if len(l) < 2 || !reflect.DeepEqual(l[len(l)-2], logLimit) {
+			t.Errorf("%s: log rule must end limit+log, got %#v", name, l)
+		}
+		if logs, limits, marks, uids := kinds(l); logs != 1 || limits != 1 || marks != wantMarks || uids != wantUIDs {
+			t.Errorf("%s: log rule logs=%d limits=%d marks=%d uids=%d, want 1/1/%d/%d", name, logs, limits, marks, uids, wantMarks, wantUIDs)
+		}
+		if n == 1 {
+			return nil
+		}
+		v := rs[1].Exprs
+		if logs, _, marks, uids := kinds(v); logs != 0 || marks != wantMarks || uids != wantUIDs {
+			t.Errorf("%s: action rule logs=%d marks=%d uids=%d, want 0/%d/%d", name, logs, marks, uids, wantMarks, wantUIDs)
+		}
+		return v
+	}
+
+	v := check("rule:0", taggedRules(state, "input", "rule:0"), 2, 1, 1)
+	if _, limits, _, _ := kinds(v); limits != 1 {
+		t.Errorf("rule:0: action rule must keep its ratelimit, got %d limits", limits)
+	}
+	if _, ok := v[len(v)-1].(*expr.Verdict); !ok {
+		t.Errorf("rule:0: action rule must end in a verdict, got %T", v[len(v)-1])
+	}
+	check("rule:1", taggedRules(state, "input", "rule:1"), 1, 1, 0)
+	if v := check("rule:2", taggedRules(state, "prerouting", "rule:2"), 2, 0, 0); v != nil {
+		if _, ok := v[len(v)-1].(*expr.NAT); !ok {
+			t.Errorf("rule:2: DNAT rule must end in nat, got %T", v[len(v)-1])
+		}
+	}
+	check("rule:3", taggedRules(state, "forward", "rule:3"), 2, 0, 0)
+	var snat []ManagedRule
+	for _, r := range state.Rules["postrouting"] {
+		if logs, _, _, _ := kinds(r.Exprs); logs > 0 || strings.HasPrefix(r.Tag, "snat:0") {
+			snat = append(snat, r)
+		}
+	}
+	if v := check("snat:0", snat, 2, 1, 0); v != nil {
+		if _, ok := v[len(v)-1].(*expr.NAT); !ok {
+			t.Errorf("snat:0: rule must end in nat, got %T", v[len(v)-1])
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// hostsCfg models a shorewall setup where lan:net is defined by hosts on net's interfaces.
+func hostsCfg(mod func(*config.Config)) *config.Config {
+	cfg := &config.Config{
+		Settings: config.Settings{TableName: "test", AddressFamily: config.FamilyINET},
+		Zones: map[string]config.Zone{
+			"fw": {Type: config.ZoneFirewall}, "net": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+			"lan": {Type: config.ZoneIP, Parents: []string{"net"}}, "vpn": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+		},
+		Interfaces: []config.Interface{
+			{Zone: "net", Interface: "wlo1"}, {Zone: "net", Interface: "enp2s0"}, {Zone: "vpn", Interface: "tun0"},
+		},
+		Hosts: []config.Host{
+			{Zone: "lan", Interface: "wlo1", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}},
+			{Zone: "lan", Interface: "enp2s0", Addresses: []string{"198.51.100.0/24"}},
+		},
+		Policy: []config.Policy{
+			{Source: "net", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop},
+			{Source: "lan", Dest: "fw", Action: config.PolicyReject},
+			{Source: "all", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyReject},
+		},
+		Rules: []config.Rule{
+			{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "lan,vpn", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"6768"}},
+		},
+		PortGroups: make(map[string]config.PortGroup),
+	}
+	if mod != nil {
+		mod(cfg)
+	}
+	return cfg
+}
+
+func describeTagged(state *FirewallState, chain, tag string) []string {
+	var out []string
+	for _, r := range taggedRules(state, chain, tag) {
+		out = append(out, describeRule(r))
+	}
+	return out
+}
+
+func TestCompile_HostsZoneRules(t *testing.T) {
+	var logs bytes.Buffer
+	prev := slog.Default()
+	slog.SetDefault(slog.New(slog.NewTextHandler(&logs, nil)))
+	defer slog.SetDefault(prev)
+
+	state := mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(nil))
+	want := []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24", "iif=tun0"}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "input", "rule:0"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("input rule:0 = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+	if strings.Contains(logs.String(), "skipping") {
+		t.Errorf("unexpected warning:\n%s", logs.String())
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_HostsSubZoneBeforeParent(t *testing.T) {
+	state := mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(nil))
+	want := []string{
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=wlo1 ip6",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip4 !saddr=198.51.100.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip6",
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "input", "policy:0"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("net->fw policy = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+	want = []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24"}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "input", "policy:1"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("lan->fw policy = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+	for _, r := range taggedRules(state, "input", "policy:1") {
+		if !slices.ContainsFunc(r.Exprs, func(e expr.Any) bool {
+			m, ok := e.(*expr.Meta)
+			return ok && m.Key == expr.MetaKeyNFPROTO
+		}) {
+			t.Errorf("host match lacks an nfproto guard: %v", describeRule(r))
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_HostsZoneMatches(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		name  string
+		mod   func(*config.Config)
+		chain string
+		tag   string
+		want  []string
+	}{
+		{"forward to hosts zone", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Rules = []config.Rule{{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "vpn", Dest: "lan", Proto: "tcp"}}
+		}, "forward", "rule:0", []string{"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 ip4 daddr=198.51.100.0/24"}},
+		{"rule address prunes non-overlapping hosts", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Rules = []config.Rule{{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "lan:192.0.2.5", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp"}}
+		}, "input", "rule:0", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24 saddr=192.0.2.5"}},
+		{"host exclusions and sub-zone exclusions fall back to the parent", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Hosts[1].Exclusions = []string{"198.51.100.7"}
+			c.Rules = []config.Rule{{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "net", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp"}}
+		}, "input", "rule:0", []string{
+			"iif=wlo1 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=wlo1 ip6",
+			"iif=enp2s0 ip4 !saddr=198.51.100.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip6",
+			"iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.7",
+		}},
+		{"host exclusion", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Hosts[1].Exclusions = []string{"198.51.100.7"}
+		}, "input", "policy:1", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24 !saddr=198.51.100.7"}},
+		{"DNAT from hosts zone", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Rules = []config.Rule{{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "lan", Dest: "vpn:203.0.113.10", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}}}
+		}, "prerouting", "rule:0", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24"}},
+		{"conntrack from hosts zone", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Conntrack = []config.ConntrackRule{{Action: config.ConntrackNoTrack, Source: "lan", Proto: "udp"}}
+		}, "raw_prerouting", "conntrack:0:raw_prerouting", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24"}},
+		{"blrule from hosts zone", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Blrules = []config.BlruleRule{{Action: config.BlruleDrop, Source: "lan", Dest: "all"}}
+		}, "input", "blrule:0", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24"}},
+		{"all expansion includes hosts zone", func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Rules = []config.Rule{{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: "all!net,vpn", Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp"}}
+		}, "input", "rule:0", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24"}},
+	}
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			state := mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(tt.mod))
+			if got := describeTagged(state, tt.chain, tt.tag); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, tt.want) {
+				t.Errorf("%s %s = %q, want %q", tt.chain, tt.tag, got, tt.want)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_IntraZoneMultiInterface(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		name   string
+		policy []config.Policy
+		tag    string
+		want   []string
+	}{
+		{
+			name:   "implicit accept between distinct interfaces",
+			policy: []config.Policy{{Source: "all", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop}},
+			tag:    "intra:lxd",
+			want:   []string{"iif=lxdbr0 oif=docker0", "iif=lxdbr0 oif=br-", "iif=docker0 oif=lxdbr0", "iif=docker0 oif=br-", "iif=br- oif=lxdbr0", "iif=br- oif=docker0"},
+		},
+		{
+			name:   "explicit zone policy overrides",
+			policy: []config.Policy{{Source: "lxd", Dest: "lxd", Action: config.PolicyDrop, Log: "info"}, {Source: "all", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop}},
+			tag:    "policy:0",
+			want:   []string{"iif=lxdbr0 oif=docker0", "iif=lxdbr0 oif=br-", "iif=docker0 oif=lxdbr0", "iif=docker0 oif=br-", "iif=br- oif=lxdbr0", "iif=br- oif=docker0"},
+		},
+	}
+	for _, tc := range tests {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			cfg := &config.Config{
+				Settings: config.Settings{TableName: "test", AddressFamily: config.FamilyINET},
+				Zones: map[string]config.Zone{
+					"fw":  {Type: config.ZoneFirewall},
+					"net": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+					"lxd": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+				},
+				Interfaces: []config.Interface{
+					{Zone: "net", Interface: "eth0"},
+					{Zone: "lxd", Interface: "lxdbr0"},
+					{Zone: "lxd", Interface: "docker0"},
+					{Zone: "lxd", Interface: "br-+"},
+				},
+				Policy:     tc.policy,
+				PortGroups: map[string]config.PortGroup{},
+			}
+			state, err := NewCompiler(cfg).Compile()
+			if err != nil {
+				t.Fatalf("Compile() error: %v", err)
+			}
+			var got, all []string
+			for _, r := range state.Rules["forward"] {
+				if r.Tag == tc.tag {
+					got = append(got, describeRule(r))
+				}
+				if strings.HasPrefix(r.Tag, "intra:") {
+					all = append(all, r.Tag)
+				}
+			}
+			if !reflect.DeepEqual(got, tc.want) {
+				t.Errorf("%s rules = %q, want %q", tc.tag, got, tc.want)
+			}
+			if tc.tag != "intra:lxd" && len(all) != 0 {
+				t.Errorf("explicit policy must replace implicit accept, got %q", all)
+			}
+			last := taggedRules(state, "forward", tc.tag)
+			if len(last) == 0 {
+				return
+			}
+			if v, ok := last[0].Exprs[len(last[0].Exprs)-1].(*expr.Verdict); !ok || (tc.tag == "intra:lxd") != (v.Kind == expr.VerdictAccept) {
+				t.Errorf("%s verdict = %#v", tc.tag, last[0].Exprs[len(last[0].Exprs)-1])
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_HostsAddressMatchesFamilyGuarded(t *testing.T) {
+	state := mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+		c.Hosts[0].Addresses = append(c.Hosts[0].Addresses, "2001:db8::/64")
+		c.Hosts[0].Exclusions = []string{"192.0.2.9"}
+	}))
+	want := []string{
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "iif=wlo1 ip6 !saddr=2001:db8::/64",
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.9",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip4 !saddr=198.51.100.0/24", "iif=enp2s0 ip6",
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "input", "policy:0"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("net->fw DROP policy = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+	want = []string{
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24 !saddr=192.0.2.9", "iif=wlo1 ip6 saddr=2001:db8::/64",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24",
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "input", "policy:1"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("lan->fw policy = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+	for chain, rules := range state.Rules {
+		for _, r := range rules {
+			var fam byte
+			for i, e := range r.Exprs {
+				if m, ok := e.(*expr.Meta); ok && m.Key == expr.MetaKeyNFPROTO {
+					fam = r.Exprs[i+1].(*expr.Cmp).Data[0]
+				}
+				p, ok := e.(*expr.Payload)
+				if !ok || p.Base != expr.PayloadBaseNetworkHeader {
+					continue
+				}
+				if p.Len == 4 && fam != unix.NFPROTO_IPV4 || p.Len == 16 && fam != unix.NFPROTO_IPV6 {
+					t.Errorf("%s %s: %d-byte address compare without its family guard: %s", chain, r.Tag, p.Len, describeRule(r))
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_FirewallSelfPolicySkipped(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, action := range []config.PolicyAction{config.PolicyAccept, config.PolicyDrop} {
+		t.Run(string(action), func(t *testing.T) {
+			state := mustCompile(t, listCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+				c.Policy = []config.Policy{
+					{Source: "fw", Dest: "fw", Action: action},
+					{Source: "net", Dest: "fw", Action: config.PolicyDrop, Log: "info"},
+				}
+			}))
+			for _, chain := range []string{"input", "output", "forward"} {
+				if got := taggedRules(state, chain, "policy:0"); len(got) != 0 {
+					t.Errorf("fw->fw emitted %d rules in %s", len(got), chain)
+				}
+			}
+			got := taggedRules(state, "input", "policy:1")
+			if len(got) != 1 || describeRule(got[0]) != "iif=eth0" {
+				t.Errorf("net->fw input rules = %d, want one scoped to eth0", len(got))
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_DestPlusOverridesIntraZone(t *testing.T) {
+	state := mustCompile(t, listCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+		c.Zones["lxd"] = config.Zone{Type: config.ZoneIP}
+		c.Interfaces = append(c.Interfaces, config.Interface{Zone: "lxd", Interface: "lxdbr0"}, config.Interface{Zone: "lxd", Interface: "docker0"})
+		c.Policy = []config.Policy{{Source: "lxd", Dest: "all+", Action: config.PolicyDrop}}
+	}))
+	if got := taggedRules(state, "forward", "intra:lxd"); len(got) != 0 {
+		t.Errorf("lxd all+ must override implicit intra-zone accept, got %d rules", len(got))
+	}
+	if got := taggedRules(state, "forward", "policy:0"); len(got) == 0 {
+		t.Error("lxd all+ emitted no forward rules")
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_HostsIntraZone(t *testing.T) {
+	state := mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(nil))
+	want := []string{
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24 oif=enp2s0 daddr=198.51.100.0/24",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24 oif=wlo1 daddr=192.0.2.0/24",
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "forward", "intra:lan"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("lan intra = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+	want = []string{
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.0/24 oif=enp2s0 !daddr=198.51.100.0/24",
+		"iif=wlo1 ip6 oif=enp2s0",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip4 !saddr=198.51.100.0/24 oif=wlo1 !daddr=192.0.2.0/24",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip6 oif=wlo1",
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "forward", "intra:net"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("net intra = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+
+	state = mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+		c.Policy = append([]config.Policy{{Source: "lan", Dest: "lan", Action: config.PolicyDrop}}, c.Policy...)
+	}))
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "forward", "intra:lan"); len(got) != 0 {
+		t.Errorf("explicit lan lan policy must replace implicit accept, got %q", got)
+	}
+	want = []string{
+		"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24 oif=enp2s0 daddr=198.51.100.0/24",
+		"iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=198.51.100.0/24 oif=wlo1 daddr=192.0.2.0/24",
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "forward", "policy:0"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("lan lan policy = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_HostsRouteBack(t *testing.T) {
+	sameIface := func(routeback bool) func(*config.Config) {
+		return func(c *config.Config) {
+			c.Hosts = []config.Host{
+				{Zone: "lan", Interface: "wlo1", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}, Options: config.HostOptions{RouteBack: routeback}},
+				{Zone: "lan", Interface: "wlo1", Addresses: []string{"198.51.100.0/24"}},
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if got := describeTagged(mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(sameIface(false))), "forward", "intra:lan"); len(got) != 0 {
+		t.Errorf("same-interface hosts without routeback = %q, want none", got)
+	}
+	want := []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24 oif=wlo1 daddr=192.0.2.0/24"}
+	if got := describeTagged(mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(sameIface(true))), "forward", "intra:lan"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("routeback hosts intra = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+
+	state := mustCompile(t, hostsCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+		sameIface(true)(c)
+		c.Policy = append([]config.Policy{{Source: "lan", Dest: "lan", Action: config.PolicyDrop}}, c.Policy...)
+	}))
+	if got := describeTagged(state, "forward", "policy:0"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+		t.Errorf("routeback hosts lan lan policy = %q, want %q", got, want)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_LimitNegatedAddrPerTableFamily(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tt := range []struct {
+		name    string
+		family  config.AddressFamily
+		source  string
+		wantErr bool
+	}{
+		{"ip v4 negation", config.FamilyIP, "net:!192.0.2.1", false},
+		{"ip v6 negation", config.FamilyIP, "net:!2001:db8::1", false},
+		{"ip mixed negation", config.FamilyIP, "net:!192.0.2.1,2001:db8::1", false},
+		{"ip6 v6 negation", config.FamilyIP6, "net:!2001:db8::1", false},
+		{"ip6 v4 negation", config.FamilyIP6, "net:!192.0.2.1", false},
+		{"inet v4 negation", config.FamilyINET, "net:!192.0.2.1", true},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			cfg := &config.Config{
+				Settings:   config.Settings{TableName: "test", AddressFamily: tt.family},
+				Zones:      map[string]config.Zone{"fw": {Type: config.ZoneFirewall}, "net": {Type: config.ZoneIP}},
+				Interfaces: []config.Interface{{Zone: "net", Interface: "eth0"}},
+				Rules:      []config.Rule{{Action: config.RuleAccept, Source: tt.source, Dest: "fw", Proto: "tcp", DPort: config.PortSpec{"22"}, RateLimit: "10/sec"}},
+				PortGroups: make(map[string]config.PortGroup),
+			}
+			state, err := NewCompiler(cfg).Compile()
+			if tt.wantErr {
+				if err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "negated address in an inet table") {
+					t.Fatalf("Compile() error = %v, want negated-address inet error", err)
+				}
+				return
+			}
+			if err != nil {
+				t.Fatalf("Compile() error: %v", err)
+			}
+			n := 0
+			for _, r := range state.Rules["input"] {
+				if r.Tag == "rule:0" {
+					n++
+				}
+			}
+			if n != 1 {
+				t.Errorf("got %d rule:0 rules, want 1", n)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_WildcardParentExcludesSubZoneHosts(t *testing.T) {
+	cfg := &config.Config{
+		Settings: config.Settings{TableName: "test", AddressFamily: config.FamilyINET},
+		Zones: map[string]config.Zone{
+			"fw": {Type: config.ZoneFirewall}, "net": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+			"lan": {Type: config.ZoneIP, Parents: []string{"net"}}, "lxd": {Type: config.ZoneIP},
+		},
+		Interfaces: []config.Interface{
+			{Zone: "net", Interface: "enp+"}, {Zone: "net", Interface: "wlo1"}, {Zone: "lxd", Interface: "lxdbr0"},
+		},
+		Hosts: []config.Host{
+			{Zone: "lan", Interface: "enp2s0", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24"}},
+			{Zone: "lan", Interface: "enp4+", Addresses: []string{"203.0.113.0/24"}},
+			{Zone: "lan", Interface: "wlo1", Addresses: []string{"198.51.100.0/24"}},
+		},
+		Policy: []config.Policy{
+			{Source: "lxd", Dest: "net", Action: config.PolicyAccept},
+			{Source: "fw", Dest: "net", Action: config.PolicyDrop},
+			{Source: "net", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyDrop},
+			{Source: "all", Dest: "all", Action: config.PolicyReject},
+		},
+		PortGroups: make(map[string]config.PortGroup),
+	}
+	state := mustCompile(t, cfg)
+	for _, tt := range []struct{ chain, tag, dir string }{
+		{"forward", "policy:0", "iif=lxdbr0 oif"}, {"output", "policy:1", "oif"}, {"input", "policy:2", "iif"},
+	} {
+		d, a := tt.dir, "daddr"
+		if tt.chain == "input" {
+			a = "saddr"
+		}
+		want := []string{
+			d + "=enp " + d[len(d)-3:] + "!=enp2s0 " + d[len(d)-3:] + "!=enp4",
+			d + "=enp2s0 ip4 !" + a + "=192.0.2.0/24", d + "=enp2s0 ip6",
+			d + "=enp4 ip4 !" + a + "=203.0.113.0/24", d + "=enp4 ip6",
+			d + "=wlo1 ip4 !" + a + "=198.51.100.0/24", d + "=wlo1 ip6",
+		}
+		if got := describeTagged(state, tt.chain, tt.tag); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+			t.Errorf("%s %s = %q, want %q", tt.chain, tt.tag, got, want)
+		}
+	}
+	for chain, want := range map[string]string{
+		"forward": "iif=lxdbr0 oif=enp2s0 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.0/24",
+		"output":  "oif=enp2s0 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.0/24",
+		"input":   "iif=enp2s0 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.0/24",
+	} {
+		if got := describeTagged(state, chain, "policy:3"); !slices.Contains(got, want) {
+			t.Errorf("%s policy:3 (lan reject) = %q, want it to contain %q", chain, got, want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestIfaceCovers(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tt := range []struct {
+		a, b string
+		want bool
+	}{
+		{"enp2s0", "enp2s0", true}, {"enp2s0", "enp3s0", false},
+		{"enp+", "enp2s0", true}, {"enp2s0", "enp+", false}, {"enp+", "wlo1", false},
+		{"en+", "enp+", true}, {"enp+", "en+", false}, {"enp+", "eno+", false}, {"enp+", "enp", true},
+	} {
+		if got := ifaceCovers(tt.a, tt.b); got != tt.want {
+			t.Errorf("ifaceCovers(%q, %q) = %v, want %v", tt.a, tt.b, got, tt.want)
+		}
+	}
+}

internal/nftables/guards_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,239 @@
+package nftables
+
+import (
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
+	"reflect"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/google/nftables/expr"
+	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
+
+	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/config"
+)
+
+func guardCfg(af config.AddressFamily) *config.Config {
+	return hostsCfg(func(c *config.Config) {
+		c.Settings.AddressFamily = af
+		c.Hosts[0].Addresses = append(c.Hosts[0].Addresses, "2001:db8::/64")
+		c.Hosts[0].Exclusions = []string{"192.0.2.9", "2001:db8::9"}
+		c.Interfaces[0].Options.NoSmurfs = true
+		c.Rules = append(c.Rules,
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDrop, Source: "net:203.0.113.7", Dest: "lan:192.0.2.5"},
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDrop, Source: "net:2001:db8:1::7", Dest: "lan:2001:db8::5"},
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDrop, Source: "vpn", Dest: "net:!192.0.2.1"},
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDrop, Source: "vpn", Dest: "net:!192.0.2.1,2001:db8::1"},
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDrop, Source: "vpn:203.0.113.7", Dest: "net:!2001:db8::5"},
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDNAT, Source: "vpn", Dest: "lan:192.0.2.10", Proto: "tcp",
+				DPort: config.PortSpec{"80"}, OrigDest: "!203.0.113.5,2001:db8::5"},
+			config.Rule{Action: config.RuleDrop, Source: "vpn:192.0.2.77,2001:db8:7::7", Dest: "fw"})
+		c.Blrules = []config.BlruleRule{{Action: config.BlruleDrop, Source: "vpn:!192.0.2.1,2001:db8::1", Dest: "fw"}}
+		c.SNAT = []config.SNATRule{
+			{Action: config.SNATMasquerade, Dest: "wlo1", Source: "!192.0.2.0/24,2001:db8::/48"},
+			{Action: config.SNATAddress, Address: "203.0.113.1", Dest: "wlo1", Source: "!192.0.2.9,2001:db8::9"},
+			{Action: config.SNATAddress, Address: "203.0.113.1", Dest: "wlo1", Source: "2001:db8::/48"},
+		}
+		c.Tunnels = []config.Tunnel{{Type: "gre", Zone: "vpn", Gateways: []string{"203.0.113.50", "2001:db8:5::1"}}}
+		c.StaticNAT = []config.StaticNAT{
+			{External: "203.0.113.60", Interface: "wlo1", Internal: "192.0.2.60"},
+			{External: "2001:db8:6::1", Interface: "wlo1", Internal: "2001:db8::60"},
+		}
+	})
+}
+
+func TestCompile_FamilyGuardsDecodable(t *testing.T) {
+	addrLen := map[config.AddressFamily]uint32{config.FamilyIP: 4, config.FamilyIP6: 16}
+	for _, af := range []config.AddressFamily{config.FamilyINET, config.FamilyIP, config.FamilyIP6} {
+		t.Run(string(af), func(t *testing.T) {
+			for chain, rules := range mustCompile(t, guardCfg(af)).Rules {
+				for _, r := range rules {
+					guards, l3 := 0, false
+					for i, e := range r.Exprs {
+						if nfprotoGuard(r.Exprs, i) != 0 {
+							guards++
+							if l3 {
+								t.Errorf("%s %s: guard after a network payload: %s", chain, r.Tag, describeRule(r))
+							}
+						}
+						if p, ok := e.(*expr.Payload); ok && p.Base == expr.PayloadBaseNetworkHeader {
+							l3 = true
+							if n := addrLen[af]; n != 0 && (p.Len == 4 || p.Len == 16) && p.Len != n {
+								t.Errorf("%s %s: other-family address in %s table: %s", chain, r.Tag, af, describeRule(r))
+							}
+						}
+					}
+					if max := map[bool]int{true: 1, false: 0}[af == config.FamilyINET]; guards > max {
+						t.Errorf("%s %s: %d family guards in %s table: %s", chain, r.Tag, guards, af, describeRule(r))
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompile_FamilyGuardsPerFamily(t *testing.T) {
+	state := mustCompile(t, guardCfg(config.FamilyINET))
+	for _, tt := range []struct {
+		chain, tag string
+		want       []string
+	}{
+		{"forward", "rule:3", []string{
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 !daddr=192.0.2.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.9 !daddr=192.0.2.1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 ip4 !daddr=198.51.100.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip6 !daddr=2001:db8::/64",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip6 daddr=2001:db8::9",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 ip6",
+		}},
+		{"forward", "rule:4", []string{
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 !daddr=192.0.2.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.9 !daddr=192.0.2.1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 ip4 !daddr=198.51.100.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip6 !daddr=2001:db8::/64 !daddr=2001:db8::1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip6 daddr=2001:db8::9 !daddr=2001:db8::1",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 ip6 !daddr=2001:db8::1",
+		}},
+		{"forward", "rule:5", []string{
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 !daddr=192.0.2.0/24 saddr=203.0.113.7",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.9 saddr=203.0.113.7",
+			"iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 ip4 !daddr=198.51.100.0/24 saddr=203.0.113.7",
+		}},
+		{"prerouting", "rule:6", []string{"iif=tun0 ip4 !daddr=203.0.113.5"}},
+		{"forward", "rule:6:accept", []string{"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 ip4 daddr=192.0.2.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.9 daddr=192.0.2.10"}},
+		{"input", "rule:7", []string{"iif=tun0 ip4 saddr=192.0.2.77", "iif=tun0 ip6 saddr=2001:db8:7::7"}},
+		{"input", "blrule:0", []string{"iif=tun0 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.1", "iif=tun0 ip6 !saddr=2001:db8::1"}},
+		{"postrouting", "snat:0", []string{"oif=wlo1 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.0/24", "oif=wlo1 ip6 !saddr=2001:db8::/48"}},
+		{"postrouting", "snat:1", []string{"oif=wlo1 ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.9"}},
+		{"postrouting", "snat:2", nil},
+		{"input", "tunnel:0", []string{"ip4 saddr=203.0.113.50", "ip6 saddr=2001:db8:5::1"}},
+		{"prerouting", "staticnat:dnat:0", []string{"iif=wlo1 ip4 daddr=203.0.113.60"}},
+		{"postrouting", "staticnat:snat:1", []string{"oif=wlo1 ip6 saddr=2001:db8::60"}},
+	} {
+		if got := describeTagged(state, tt.chain, tt.tag); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, tt.want) {
+			t.Errorf("%s %s = %q, want %q", tt.chain, tt.tag, got, tt.want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// TestCompile_NegatedV4DropKeepsV6 checks a single-family table keeps its family's half of a
+// negated DROP: "everything except 192.0.2.1" still drops all IPv6.
+func TestCompile_NegatedV4DropKeepsV6(t *testing.T) {
+	for af, want := range map[config.AddressFamily][]string{
+		config.FamilyIP:  {"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 !daddr=192.0.2.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.1", "iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 daddr=192.0.2.9 !daddr=192.0.2.1", "iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0 !daddr=198.51.100.0/24 !daddr=192.0.2.1"},
+		config.FamilyIP6: {"iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 !daddr=2001:db8::/64", "iif=tun0 oif=wlo1 daddr=2001:db8::9", "iif=tun0 oif=enp2s0"},
+	} {
+		if got := describeTagged(mustCompile(t, guardCfg(af)), "forward", "rule:3"); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+			t.Errorf("%s rule:3 = %q, want %q", af, got, want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestSplitAddrs(t *testing.T) {
+	for in, want := range map[string][]string{
+		"":                                       {""},
+		"192.0.2.1,2001:db8::1":                  {"192.0.2.1", "2001:db8::1"},
+		"!192.0.2.1":                             {"!192.0.2.1", "::/0"},
+		"!2001:db8::1":                           {"0.0.0.0/0", "!2001:db8::1"},
+		"!192.0.2.1,2001:db8::1,198.51.100.0/24": {"!192.0.2.1,198.51.100.0/24", "!2001:db8::1"},
+	} {
+		if got := splitAddrs(in); !reflect.DeepEqual(got, want) {
+			t.Errorf("splitAddrs(%q) = %q, want %q", in, got, want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestMatchGuardedCIDR(t *testing.T) {
+	for in, want := range map[string]string{
+		"192.0.2.1":                  "ip4 saddr=192.0.2.1",
+		"2001:db8::/48":              "ip6 saddr=2001:db8::/48",
+		"!192.0.2.1,198.51.100.0/24": "ip4 !saddr=192.0.2.1 !saddr=198.51.100.0/24",
+		"!2001:db8::1":               "ip6 !saddr=2001:db8::1",
+		"0.0.0.0/0":                  "ip4",
+		"::/0":                       "ip6",
+	} {
+		e, err := matchSourceCIDR(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("%s: %v", in, err)
+		}
+		if got := describeRule(ManagedRule{Exprs: e}); got != want {
+			t.Errorf("matchSourceCIDR(%q) = %q, want %q", in, got, want)
+		}
+	}
+	if e, _ := matchDestCIDR("!2001:db8::5"); describeRule(ManagedRule{Exprs: e}) != "ip6 !daddr=2001:db8::5" {
+		t.Errorf("matchDestCIDR(!2001:db8::5) = %q", describeRule(ManagedRule{Exprs: e}))
+	}
+	if _, err := matchSourceCIDR("!nonsense"); err == nil {
+		t.Error("invalid negated address: want error")
+	}
+}
+
+func TestFamilyGuards(t *testing.T) {
+	v4, _ := matchSourceCIDR("192.0.2.1")
+	v6, _ := matchDestCIDR("2001:db8::1")
+	both, _ := matchDestCIDR("198.51.100.1")
+	state := func(e ...[]expr.Any) *FirewallState {
+		var r []expr.Any
+		for _, x := range e {
+			r = append(r, x...)
+		}
+		return &FirewallState{Rules: map[string][]ManagedRule{"input": {{Exprs: r, Tag: "t"}}}}
+	}
+	s := state(v4, both)
+	if err := familyGuards(s, config.FamilyINET); err != nil || describeRule(s.Rules["input"][0]) != "ip4 saddr=192.0.2.1 daddr=198.51.100.1" {
+		t.Errorf("same-family guards not merged: %v %q", err, describeRule(s.Rules["input"][0]))
+	}
+	if err := familyGuards(state(v4, v6), config.FamilyINET); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "conflicting") {
+		t.Errorf("conflicting guards: want error, got %v", err)
+	}
+	s = state(v6)
+	if err := familyGuards(s, config.FamilyIP); err != nil || len(s.Rules["input"]) != 0 {
+		t.Errorf("ip table must drop IPv6 rules: %v %v", err, s.Rules["input"])
+	}
+	s = state(v6)
+	if err := familyGuards(s, config.FamilyIP6); err != nil || describeRule(s.Rules["input"][0]) != "daddr=2001:db8::1" {
+		t.Errorf("ip6 table must strip the guard: %v %q", err, describeRule(s.Rules["input"][0]))
+	}
+	if !famsAgree(0, unix.NFPROTO_IPV4, 0, unix.NFPROTO_IPV4) || famsAgree(unix.NFPROTO_IPV4, 0, unix.NFPROTO_IPV6) {
+		t.Error("famsAgree")
+	}
+}
+
+// TestNetnsNftListDecodes applies each family in a fresh user+net namespace and requires
+// nft(8) to list the ruleset and a second plan to be empty. Needs unshare and nft.
+func TestNetnsNftListDecodes(t *testing.T) {
+	if af := os.Getenv("TOMSWALL_NETNS_CHILD"); af != "" {
+		netnsChild(t, config.AddressFamily(af))
+		return
+	}
+	if os.Getenv("TOMSWALL_NETNS_TEST") == "" {
+		t.Skip("set TOMSWALL_NETNS_TEST=1 to run (needs unshare and nft)")
+	}
+	for _, af := range []config.AddressFamily{config.FamilyINET, config.FamilyIP, config.FamilyIP6} {
+		cmd := exec.Command("unshare", "-rn", os.Args[0], "-test.run=^TestNetnsNftListDecodes$", "-test.v")
+		cmd.Env = append(os.Environ(), "TOMSWALL_NETNS_CHILD="+string(af))
+		if out, err := cmd.CombinedOutput(); err != nil {
+			t.Errorf("%s: %v\n%s", af, err, out)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func netnsChild(t *testing.T, af config.AddressFamily) {
+	e, err := NewEngine(guardCfg(af))
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	cs, err := e.Plan()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := e.Apply(cs); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if out, err := exec.Command("nft", "list", "ruleset").CombinedOutput(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("nft list ruleset: %v\n%s", err, out)
+	}
+	if cs, err = e.Plan(); err != nil || len(cs.Add)+len(cs.Remove) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("second plan not empty: %d add, %d remove, err %v", len(cs.Add), len(cs.Remove), err)
+	}
+}

internal/shorewall/convert.go

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package shorewall
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
+	"log/slog"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 
@@ -141,6 +142,17 @@ func convertConf(dir string, cfg *config.Config, params map[string]string, ipv6
 	} else {
 		cfg.Settings.LogLevel = "info"
 	}
+	if v := conf["LOGLIMIT"]; v != "" {
+		if strings.HasPrefix(v, "s:") || strings.HasPrefix(v, "d:") {
+			slog.Warn("shorewall: per-address LOGLIMIT is not supported, limiting each log site globally", "loglimit", v)
+			v = v[2:]
+		}
+		if name, rest, ok := strings.Cut(v, ":"); ok && !strings.Contains(name, "/") {
+			slog.Warn("shorewall: named LOGLIMIT is not supported, dropping the name", "loglimit", conf["LOGLIMIT"])
+			v = rest
+		}
+		cfg.Settings.LogLimit = v
+	}
 	if v, ok := conf["IP_FORWARDING"]; ok {
 		cfg.Settings.IPForwarding = v == "Yes" || v == "On" || v == "on" || v == "Keep"
 	}
@@ -236,6 +248,9 @@ func convertInterfaces(dir string, cfg *config.Config, params map[string]string)
 	for _, row := range rows {
 		zone := subst(field(row, 0), params)
 		iface := subst(field(row, 1), params)
+		if isDash(zone) {
+			zone = ""
+		}
 
 		intf := config.Interface{
 			Zone:      zone,
@@ -380,12 +395,14 @@ func convertHosts(dir string, cfg *config.Config, params map[string]string) erro
 		zone := subst(field(row, 0), params)
 		hostDef := subst(field(row, 1), params)
 
+		hostDef, excl, _ := strings.Cut(hostDef, "!")
 		iface, addrs := splitHostDef(hostDef)
 
 		host := config.Host{
-			Zone:      zone,
-			Interface: iface,
-			Addresses: addrs,
+			Zone:       zone,
+			Interface:  iface,
+			Addresses:  addrs,
+			Exclusions: splitAddrList(excl),
 		}
 
 		optsStr := subst(field(row, 2), params)
@@ -403,16 +420,19 @@ func splitHostDef(s string) (string, []string) {
 	if idx < 0 {
 		return s, nil
 	}
-	iface := s[:idx]
-	addrPart := s[idx+1:]
+	return s[:idx], splitAddrList(s[idx+1:])
+}
+
+// splitAddrList splits a comma address list, unwrapping shorewall6 [addr]/len brackets.
+func splitAddrList(s string) []string {
 	var addrs []string
-	for _, a := range strings.Split(addrPart, ",") {
-		a = strings.TrimSpace(a)
+	for _, a := range strings.Split(s, ",") {
+		a = strings.NewReplacer("[", "", "]", "").Replace(strings.TrimSpace(a))
 		if a != "" {
 			addrs = append(addrs, a)
 		}
 	}
-	return iface, addrs
+	return addrs
 }
 
 func parseHostOptions(s string) config.HostOptions {

internal/shorewall/convert_test.go

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ package shorewall
 import (
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
+	"reflect"
 	"testing"
 
 	"git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall/internal/config"
@@ -756,3 +757,50 @@ func TestConvert_Dispositions(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 	}
 }
+
+func TestConvert_LogLimit(t *testing.T) {
+	for in, want := range map[string]string{
+		`LOGLIMIT="s:1/sec:10"`:   "1/sec:10",
+		`LOGLIMIT=2/min`:          "2/min",
+		`LOGLIMIT=name:1/sec:5`:   "1/sec:5",
+		`LOGLIMIT=s:name:1/sec:5`: "1/sec:5",
+		`LOGLIMIT=`:               "",
+	} {
+		dir := minimalShorewallDir(t)
+		writeFile(t, dir, "shorewall.conf", "LOG_LEVEL=info\n"+in+"\n")
+		cfg, err := Convert(dir)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("%s: %v", in, err)
+		}
+		if cfg.Settings.LogLimit != want {
+			t.Errorf("%s: log_limit = %q, want %q", in, cfg.Settings.LogLimit, want)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestConvert_HostsExclusions(t *testing.T) {
+	dir := minimalShorewallDir(t)
+	writeFile(t, dir, "interfaces", `
+net eth0
+- eth1
+`)
+	writeFile(t, dir, "hosts", `
+loc eth0:192.0.2.0/24,198.51.100.0/24!192.0.2.7,192.0.2.8 routeback
+loc eth1:[2001:db8::]/64
+`)
+	cfg, err := Convert(dir)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Convert: %v", err)
+	}
+	want := []config.Host{
+		{Zone: "loc", Interface: "eth0", Addresses: []string{"192.0.2.0/24", "198.51.100.0/24"},
+			Exclusions: []string{"192.0.2.7", "192.0.2.8"}, Options: config.HostOptions{RouteBack: true}},
+		{Zone: "loc", Interface: "eth1", Addresses: []string{"2001:db8::/64"}},
+	}
+	if !reflect.DeepEqual(cfg.Hosts, want) {
+		t.Errorf("hosts = %+v, want %+v", cfg.Hosts, want)
+	}
+	if err := cfg.Validate(); err != nil {
+		t.Errorf("Validate: %v", err)
+	}
+}

internal/tryapply/tryapply.go

@@ -25,15 +25,15 @@ const Unit = "tomswall-try-revert"
 var (
 	// Dir holds the lock and the pending snapshot.
 	Dir = "/var/lib/tomswall"
-	// run executes a systemd command; replaced in tests.
-	run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
+	// Run executes a systemd command. Test hook; production code must not reassign.
+	Run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
 		if out, err := exec.Command(name, args...).CombinedOutput(); err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("%s %s: %w: %s", name, strings.Join(args, " "), err, strings.TrimSpace(string(out)))
 		}
 		return nil
 	}
-	// restore rolls the live table back to a snapshot; replaced in tests.
-	restore = func(s *nftables.Snapshot) error {
+	// Restore rolls the live table back to a snapshot. Test hook; production code must not reassign.
+	Restore = func(s *nftables.Snapshot) error {
 		engine, err := nftables.NewEngine(&config.Config{Settings: config.Settings{TableName: s.Table}})
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
@@ -94,23 +94,7 @@ func Arm(snap *nftables.Snapshot, pid int, delay time.Duration) (string, error)
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
-	f, err := os.CreateTemp(Dir, ".try-snapshot-*")
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", err
-	}
-	defer os.Remove(f.Name())
-	if _, err := f.Write(b); err != nil {
-		f.Close()
-		return "", err
-	}
-	if err := f.Sync(); err != nil {
-		f.Close()
-		return "", err
-	}
-	if err := f.Close(); err != nil {
-		return "", err
-	}
-	if err := os.Rename(f.Name(), snapshotPath()); err != nil {
+	if err := WriteFile(snapshotPath(), b); err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
 
@@ -119,13 +103,46 @@ func Arm(snap *nftables.Snapshot, pid int, delay time.Duration) (string, error)
 		return "", discardWith(err)
 	}
 	_ = disarm() // a leftover timer from an earlier try would block the unit name
-	if err := run("systemd-run", "--quiet", "--collect", "--unit", Unit,
+	if err := Run("systemd-run", "--quiet", "--collect", "--unit", Unit,
 		fmt.Sprintf("--on-active=%ds", int(delay.Round(time.Second).Seconds())), exe, "revert", "--id", id); err != nil {
 		return "", discardWith(fmt.Errorf("arming revert timer: %w", err))
 	}
 	return id, nil
 }
 
+// WriteFile durably replaces path with b: temp file, fsync, rename, fsync the directory.
+func WriteFile(path string, b []byte) error {
+	dir := filepath.Dir(path)
+	if err := os.MkdirAll(dir, 0o755); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	f, err := os.CreateTemp(dir, "."+filepath.Base(path)+"-*")
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer os.Remove(f.Name())
+	if _, err := f.Write(b); err != nil {
+		f.Close()
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := f.Sync(); err != nil {
+		f.Close()
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := f.Close(); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := os.Rename(f.Name(), path); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	d, err := os.Open(dir)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer d.Close()
+	return d.Sync()
+}
+
 // Discard drops the pending snapshot and timer without restoring. The caller must hold the lock.
 func Discard() error {
 	_ = disarm()
@@ -143,7 +160,7 @@ func discardWith(err error) error {
 }
 
 func disarm() error {
-	return run("systemctl", "stop", Unit+".timer")
+	return Run("systemctl", "stop", Unit+".timer")
 }
 
 // Confirm keeps the tried ruleset. ok is false when no try was pending, i.e.
@@ -193,7 +210,7 @@ func Abort() error {
 }
 
 func restorePending(p *pending) error {
-	if err := restore(p.Snapshot); err != nil {
+	if err := Restore(p.Snapshot); err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("restoring snapshot: %w", err)
 	}
 	return Discard()

internal/tryapply/tryapply_test.go

@@ -15,12 +15,12 @@ func setup(t *testing.T) *[]string {
 	t.Helper()
 	Dir = t.TempDir()
 	var cmds []string
-	orig := run
-	run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
+	orig := Run
+	Run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
 		cmds = append(cmds, name+" "+strings.Join(args, " "))
 		return nil
 	}
-	t.Cleanup(func() { run = orig })
+	t.Cleanup(func() { Run = orig })
 	return &cmds
 }
 
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ func TestAcquireRefusesWhilePending(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestArmFailureDiscardsSnapshot(t *testing.T) {
 	setup(t)
-	run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
+	Run = func(name string, args ...string) error {
 		if name == "systemd-run" {
 			return errors.New("no systemd")
 		}
@@ -145,12 +145,12 @@ func TestConfirmAfterRevertFails(t *testing.T) {
 func stubRestore(t *testing.T, err error) *[]*nftables.Snapshot {
 	t.Helper()
 	var got []*nftables.Snapshot
-	orig := restore
-	restore = func(s *nftables.Snapshot) error {
+	orig := Restore
+	Restore = func(s *nftables.Snapshot) error {
 		got = append(got, s)
 		return err
 	}
-	t.Cleanup(func() { restore = orig })
+	t.Cleanup(func() { Restore = orig })
 	return &got
 }
 

packaging/nfpm.yaml

@@ -47,6 +47,17 @@ contents:
     file_info:
       mode: 0640
 
+  # systemd unit + environment file for applying a local config at boot.
+  - src: packaging/tomswall.service
+    dst: /usr/lib/systemd/system/tomswall.service
+    file_info:
+      mode: 0644
+  - src: packaging/tomswall.env
+    dst: /etc/tomswall/tomswall.env
+    type: config|noreplace
+    file_info:
+      mode: 0644
+
   # Shell completions (generated by scripts/build-rpm.sh before packaging).
   - src: dist/completions/tomswall.bash
     dst: /usr/share/bash-completion/completions/tomswall

packaging/tomswall-agent.service

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ Description=tomswall control-plane agent (pull and apply firewall config)
 Documentation=https://git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall
 After=network-online.target
 Wants=network-online.target
+Conflicts=tomswall.service
 
 [Service]
 Type=simple

packaging/tomswall.env

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+# Config applied by tomswall.service: a tomswall YAML file or a shorewall directory.
+TOMSWALL_CONFIG=/etc/tomswall/tomswall.yaml
+#TOMSWALL_CONFIG=/etc/shorewall

packaging/tomswall.service

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+[Unit]
+Description=tomswall firewall (apply local config at boot)
+Documentation=https://git.unkin.net/unkin/tomswall
+DefaultDependencies=no
+Wants=network-pre.target
+Before=network-pre.target shutdown.target
+After=local-fs.target systemd-sysctl.service
+Conflicts=shutdown.target tomswall-agent.service
+StartLimitIntervalSec=60
+StartLimitBurst=5
+
+[Service]
+Type=oneshot
+RemainAfterExit=yes
+Environment=TOMSWALL_CONFIG=/etc/tomswall/tomswall.yaml
+EnvironmentFile=-/etc/tomswall/tomswall.env
+ExecStart=/usr/sbin/tomswall apply -c ${TOMSWALL_CONFIG}
+ExecReload=/usr/sbin/tomswall apply -c ${TOMSWALL_CONFIG}
+# Fails open: after StartLimitBurst failures within StartLimitIntervalSec, boot continues without the ruleset.
+Restart=on-failure
+RestartSec=5
+# No ExecStop: stopping the unit leaves the ruleset in place (flush would open the firewall).
+
+[Install]
+WantedBy=sysinit.target

tomswall.example.yaml

@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@ settings:
   address_family: inet
   ip_forwarding: true
   log_level: info
+  # rate limit for every log site (shorewall LOGLIMIT, global form): rate/{sec|min|hour|day}[:burst]; unset logs every hit
+  log_limit: 1/sec:10
   table_name: tomswall
   implicit_continue: false
   # ct state invalid/untracked verdict: accept, drop, reject, continue (pass to rules)